94. Robert Hillenbrand, Islamic Architecture (New York, 1994), p. 359.
95. GB photos J_61 and J_62, Gertrude Bell Archive; H.Z. Watenpaugh, The Image of an Ottoman City: Imperial Architecture and Urban Experience in Aleppo in the 16thand 17thCenturies (Leiden, 2004), pp. 192–3.
96. GB photo J_059, Gertrude Bell Archive.
97. GB photo J_058, Gertrude Bell Archive; Watenpaugh, Image, p. 194.
98. Watenpaugh, Image, p. 194.
99. GB letter to her mother, 15 February 1909, Gertrude Bell Archive.
100. Bell, Amurath, pp. 17–18.
101. Ibid., p. 16.
102. Ibid., p. 27; GB letter to her parents, 17 February 1909, Gertrude Bell Archive.
103. Bell, Amurath, p. 28.
104. Ibid., p. 515.
105. Hogarth, ‘Carchemish’, p. 179.
106. Bell, ‘The east bank’, p. 513; Bell, Amurath, p. 29, fn. 1; GB letter to her parents, 17 February 1909, Gertrude Bell Archive.
107. GB diary, 17 February 1909, Gertrude Bell Archive.
108. Bell, Amurath, pp. 28–30; GB diary 17–18 February, 1909; GB letters to her parents, 17–18 February 1909, Gertrude Bell Archive.
109. Bell's visit to Hogarth in Oxford to go over her squeezes and photographs is reported in a letter to her mother, 8 October 1909, Gertrude Bell Archive.
110. Hogarth, ‘Carchemish’, pl. 39.
111. Ibid., p. 179.
112. For GB's visit to this site, see her diary entry, 9 June 1909, and letter to her mother, 10 June 1909, Gertrude Bell Archive.
113. Hogarth, ‘Carchemish’, pp. 180, 182; pls. 40: 1, 2, 4; 41: 1–6.
114. F. Thureau-Dangin and M. Dunand, Til-Barsib (Paris, 1936); A. Roobaert and G. Bunnens, ‘Excavations at Tell Ahmar-Til Barsib’, in G. del Olmo Lete and J.-L. Montero Fenollós (eds), Archaeology of the Upper Syrian Euphrates: The Tishrin Dam Area (Barcelona, 1999), pp. 163–78; G. Bunnens, Tell Ahmar: 1988 Season (Leuven, 1990); G. Bunnens, ‘Looking for Luwians, Aramaeans and Assyrians in the Tell Ahmar stratigraphy’, in S. Mazzoni and S. Soldi (eds), Syrian Archaeology in Perspective: Celebrating 20 Years of Excavations at Tell Afis (Pisa, 2013), pp. 177–97.
115. Guy Bunnens, A New Luwian Stele and the Cult of the Storm-God at Til Barsib-Masuwari (Louvain, 2006), pp. 103–4; Bunnens, ‘Looking for Luwians’, p. 184.
116. Peter Akkermans and Glenn Schwartz, The Archaeology of Syria (Cambridge, 2003) p. 382.
117. Lisa Cooper, Early Urbanism on the Syrian Euphrates (London, 2006), pp. 230–2; Guy Bunnens, ‘A third-millennium temple at Tell Ahmar (Syria)’, paper delivered at the 9th International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, Basel, 12 June 2014.
118. F. Thureau-Dangin, ‘Tell Ahmar’, Syria 10 (1929), p. 198 and pls. 28–31; Hawkins, Corpus, TELL AHMAR 1 Stele, p. 239.
119. Earlier, in Ariyahinas's time, a competing family dynasty had taken the opportunity to usurp the throne and install its own king. The son of that usurping king was called Hamiyatas, and he apparently promised that upon his death, the heir of Ariyahinas, the usurped king, would be restored to power. When this did not happen, and Hamiyatas's own son tried to keep power, the legitimate heir seized power forcibly and was able to recover his heritage. See Bunnens, A New Luwian Stele, p. 103; Hawkins, Corpus, pp. 225–6; Guy Bunnens, ‘Assyrian empire building and Aramization of culture as seen from Tell Ahmar/Til Barsib’, Syria 86 (2009), pp. 67–82, here p. 75.
120. Bunnens, A New Luwian Stele, p. 33.
121. Bunnens, ‘Looking for Luwians’, p. 183.
122. Bunnens, A New Luwian Stele, p. 1.
123. Ibid., p. 1.
124. Ibid., p. 85.
125. Ibid., pp. 103–8.
126. Or possibly a bull, according to Bunnens, A New Luwian Stele, p. 6; Bell, ‘The east bank’, p. 515; Bell, Amurath, p. 30; GB photograph J_135, Gertrude Bell Archive.
127. Bunnens, A New Luwian Stele, p. 6.
128. Ibid., p. 6.
129. Bell, Amurath, p. 31.
130. Ibid., pp. 31–2.
131. Ibid., p. 33.
132. Hawkins, ‘Karkamiš’, p. 429.
133. Ibid., pp. 428–34.
134. J.D. Hawkins, ‘Carchemish’, in E.M. Meyers (ed.), The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East (New York, 1997), p. 424; Trevor Bryce, The World of the Neo-Hittite Kingdoms (Oxford, 2012), pp. 89–98.
135. Bryce, World, pp. 83–4.
136. Ibid., p. 84.
137. Ibid., p. 84.
138. Hawkins, ‘Karkamiš’, p. 434; Hogarth, ‘Carchemish’, pp. 169–71 and pls. 35 and 36:1; Bell, Amurath, p. 34; GB photographs, Album J_145 and J_146, Gertrude Bell Archive.
139. Wilson, Lawrence, pp. 70–3 and passim. This biography of T.E. Lawrence provides a splendidly detailed timeline of the Carchemish excavations.
140. Hawkins, ‘Karkamiš’, p. 434.
141. David Hogarth, Carchemish. Report on the Excavations at Jerablus on Behalf of the British Museum I: Introductory (London, 1914); C.L. Woolley, Carchemish. Report on the Excavations at Jerablus on Behalf of the British Museum II: The Town Defences (London, 1921); C.L. Woolley and R.D. Barnett, Carchemish. Report on the Excavations at Jerablus on Behalf of the British Museum III: The Excavations in the Inner Town, and The Hittite Inscriptions (London, 1952); Hawkins, ‘Karkamiš’, pp. 436–8.
142. Nicolò Marchetti, ‘Karkemish on the Euphrates: Excavating a city's history’, Near Eastern Archaeology 75 (2012), pp. 132–47.
143. Wilson, Lawrence, pp. 81, 86, 96, 104, 116–17, 118–19, 122; Paola Sconzo, ‘Bronze Age pottery from the Carchemish region at the British Museum’, Palestine Exploration Quarterly 145 (2013), pp. 334–8.
144. Lawrence James, The Golden Warrior: The Life and Legend of Lawrence of Arabia (London, 1990), p. 47; Wilson, Lawrence, p. 80.
145. Ibid., p. 79.
146. Anderson, Lawrence in Arabia, p. 33.
147. Even one of L. Woolley's essays about T.E. Lawrence, written in later years, tends to make light of Lawrence's efforts on the project, giving the strong impression that he ‘was dilettante in his attitude towards archaeology’. See Wilson, Lawrence, pp. 128–30, who assesses L. Woolley's essay in T.E. Lawrence by his Friends, edited by A.W. Lawrence (London, 1937). In this review, Wilson puts forward several reasons for Woolley's somewhat untruthful sketch of Lawrence.
148. Cooper, Early Urbanism, p. 211; Sconzo, ‘Bronze Age pottery’; Paola Sconzo, ‘The grave of the court pit: A rediscovered Bronze Age tomb from Carchemish’, Palestine Exploration Quarterly 146 (2014), pp. 3–16.
149. James, Golden Warrior, p. 51.
150. Ibid., pp. 52–3, 60; Anderson, Lawrence in Arabia, pp. 33–4.
151. James, Golden Warrior, p. 60; Wilson, Lawrence, pp. 543–5. Some make the case that Lawrence's romantic vision of Arab freedom was fashioned out of the idealized image represented by his Jerablus friend Dahoum. The dedication in Lawrence's account of his part in the Arab Revolt, in Seven Pillars of Wisdom, is written for Selim Ahmed, this being the full name for Dahoum.
152. GB letter to her parents, 20 May 1911, Gertrude Bell Archive.
153. GB letter to her parents, 21 May 1911, Gertrude Bell Archive.
154. Lawrence letter to his mother, 23 May 1911, in M. Brown (ed.), T.E. Lawrence: The Selected Letters (New York, 1988), pp. 36–7.
155. Jonathan N. Tubb, ‘Leonard Woolley und Thomas E. Lawrence in Karkemisch’, in Trümpler, Das Grosse Spiel, p. 257.
156. Tubb, ‘Leonard Woolley’, pp. 255, 257.
157. GB letter to her parents, 21 May 1911, Gertrude Bell Archive.
158. Lawrence letter to his mother, 23 May 1911, in Brown, T.E. Lawrence, p. 37.
159. Bell, Amurath, p. 36.
160. Ibid., p. 36, fn. 1; GB diary 21 February 1909, Gertrude Bell Archive; Max von Oppenheim, ‘Griechische und lateinische Inschriften aus Syrien, Mesopotamien und Kleinasien’, Byzantinische Zeitschrift 14 (1905), pp. 1–72.
161. GB letter
to her parents, 21 February 1909, Gertrude Bell Archive. She did not seem to know of H. Pognon's visit and his publication of the north tomb inscription until she returned to England, but she did mention his work in Amurath (p. 36, fn. 1; p. 37, fn. 1).
162. Rüdiger Gogräfe, ‘Die Grabtürme von Sirrin (Osroëne)’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 8 (1995), pp. 165–201.
163. Ibid., Abb. 2–5.
164. Ibid., p. 186.
165. The protomes are likely bulls, although their heads are now missing, so it is difficult to know their identity for certain. Bell, following Oppenheim, conjectured that these were the front parts of lions; Bell, Amurath, p. 36; Gogräfe, ‘Grabtürme’, p. 180.
166. Bell, Amurath, p. 36; J.B. Segal, Edessa, ‘The Blessed City’ (Oxford, 1970), p. 23; a translation of the Ma'nu inscription is provided on p. 23, fn. 4.
167. Gogräfe, ‘Grabtürme’, p. 180.
168. Ibid., p. 180.
169. Bell, Amurath, p. 37; Gogräfe, ‘Grabtürme’, pp. 180, 183.
170. Bell, Amurath, p. 37.
171. Gogräfe, ‘Grabtürme’, p. 183 and pl. 25b.
172. Bell, Amurath, p. 38; Gogräfe, ‘Grabtürme’, p. 186.
173. Bell, Amurath, p. 38.
174. Gogräfe, ‘Grabtürme’, pp. 184, 186.
175. GB photographs, Album J_149 and J_150, Gertrude Bell Archive.
176. Gogräfe, ‘Grabtürme’, p. 183 and pl. 26c.
177. Warwick Ball, Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire (London, 2000), pp. 364, 366–7; Pascale Clauss, ‘Les tours funéraires du djebel Baghoûz dans l'histoire de la tour funéraire syrienne’, Syria 49 (2002), pp. 170–1.
178. Gogräfe, ‘Grabtürme’, p. 199; Segal, Edessa, p. 29; Clauss, ‘Les tours’, p. 173.
179. Segal, Edessa, pp. 23–4.
180. Bell, Amurath, p. 37.
181. Ibid., p. 40.
182. Ibid., pp. 30–42.
183. Ibid., p. 47.
184. On the basis of Bell's report of basalt mills having been incorporated into tombs between Tell Munbayah and Tell Murraibet, and the fact that the local Bedouin did not know what they were, T. Wilkinson suggests that they were parts of rotary water mills for grinding grain (as opposed to saddle querns) that once existed along this stretch of the river. See Tony J. Wilkinson, On the Margin of the Euphrates: Settlement and Land Use at Tell es-Sweyhat and in the Upper Lake Assad Area, Syria (Chicago, 2004), p. 5. See also Bell's photograph of a basalt millstone at Abu Said, further downriver, GB photo J_204, Gertrude Bell Archive.
185. Ibid., p. 5.
186. Tony J. Wilkinson, G. Philip, J. Bradbury, R. Dunford, D. Donoghue, N. Galiatsatos, D. Lawrence, A. Ricci and S.L. Smith, ‘Contextualizing early urbanism: Settlement cores, early states and agro-pastoral strategies in the Fertile Crescent during the fourth and third millennium BC’, Journal of World Prehistory, published online, 16 April 2014, DOI 10.1007/s10963-014-9072-2.
187. Bell, Amurath, p. 30.
188. Ibid., p. 47.
189. É. Coqueugniot, ‘Dja'de el Mughara (moyen-Euphrate), un village néolithique dans son environnement naturel à la veille de la domestication’, in M. Fortin and O. Aurenche (eds), Espace naturel, espace habité en Syrie du Nord (Toronto, 1998), pp. 109–14.
190. Akkermans and Schwartz, Archaeology of Syria, pp. 50–2.
191. Bell, Amurath, p. 44.
192. Akkermans and Schwartz, Archaeology of Syria, pp. 194–6.
193. Bell, Amurath, pp. 30, 41, 43. At the latter site, she reports seeing, among a heap of cut stones, fragments of an entablature carved with dentils and palmettes, possibly the remnants of a tower tomb. Wilkinson conjectured that this may have been at, or near to, Tell Jouweif, occupied during the third millennium but also in the later Hellenistic period. It is also known as Shams ed-Din East; Wilkinson, On the Margin, pp. 5, 202.
194. Bell, Amurath, p. 43. This is also known as Shams ed-Din Central. Here Bell notes having seen heaps of unsquared building stones. Wilkinson, On the Margin, pp. 249–50.
195. Bell, Amurath, p. 43. Several shaft tombs belonging to an Early Bronze Age cemetery have been explored here, and it is evident that a settlement existed here as well, although the mounded site whose date is uncertain is now located within a modern village. Before the current war in Syria, it had been the place of a thriving Suq al-Ahad, or Sunday market. See Jan-Waalke Meyer, Gräber des 3. Jahrtausands. V. Chr. im syrischen Euphrattal. 3 Ausgrabungen in Šamseddin und Djerniye (Saarbrücken, 1991), p. 149; Wilkinson, On the Margin, p. 5.
196. Bell, Amurath, p. 47.
197. Cooper, Early Urbanism.
198. Ibid.
199. Bell, Amurath, p. 44.
200. Bell photographs, Album J_158–163, Gertrude Bell Archive; Bell, Amurath, Fig. 25.
201. Ibid., p. 44.
202. D. Machule, ‘1969–1994: Ekalte (Tall Munbāqa). Eine bronzezeitliche Stadt in Syrien’, in G. Wilhelm (ed.), Zwischen Tigris und Nil (Mainz am Rhein, 1998), pp. 115–25.
203. Peter Werner, Tell Munbaqa: Bronzezeit in Syrien (Neumünster, 1998).
204. R.M. Czichon and P. Werner, Tell Munbāqa – Ekalte – I: Die Bronzezeitlichen Kleinfunde (Saarbrücken, 1998), Plate 1.
205. Machule, ‘Ekalte (Tall Munbāqa)’, p. 117.
206. Bell, Amurath, p. 44.
207. Christina Tonghini, Qalʽat Jaʽbar Pottery: A Study of a Syrian Fortified Site of the Late 11th–14thCenturies (Oxford, 1998).
208. Burns, Monuments, p. 175.
209. Tonghini, Qalʽat Jaʽbar Pottery, p. 23.
210. Bell, Amurath, p. 51.
211. Tonghini, Qalʽat Jaʽbar Pottery, p. 26.
212. Ibid., p. 26.
213. Bell, Amurath, p. 53 and Figs 33–4.
214. In 1855, Sachau was the first European to take note of this ruin; Eduard Sachau, Reise durch Syrien und Mesopotamien (Leipzig, 1883), p. 245; Bell, Amurath, p. 54, fn. 1.
215. Kassem Toueir, ‘Heraqlah: A unique victory monument of Harun al-Rashid’, World Archaeology 14 (1983), p. 296.
216. Ibid., p. 296; Marcus Milwright, An Introduction to Islamic Archaeology (Edinburgh, 2010), p. 80. See also the following chapters in Verena Daiber and Andrea Becker (eds), Raqqa III: Baudenkmäler und Paläste I (Mainz am Rhein, 2004), which provide further information about this site: Kassem Toueir, ‘Das Hiraqla des Hārūn ar-Rašśd’, pp. 137–42; S. Chmelnizkij, ‘Überlegungen zum Planungskonzept und zur Rekonstruktion von Hiraqla’, pp. 143–8; and U. Becker, ‘Überlegungen zur Anlage von Hiraqla bei Raqqa’, pp. 149–56, as well as pls. 88–9.
217. Toueir, ‘Heraqlah’, p. 298.
218. GB diary entries, 27–8 February and 1 March 1909, Gertrude Bell Archive.
219. Bell, Amurath, p. 54.
220. Ibid., pp. 55–6.
221. Milwright, Introduction to Islamic Archaeology, p. 80.
222. Stefan Heidemann, ‘Die Geschichte von ar-Raqqa/ar-Rāfiqa’, in S. Heidemann and A. Becker (eds), Raqqa II. Die Islamische Stadt (Mainz am Rhein, 2003), p. 17. See also Lorenz Korn's chapter on the Raqqa mosque and minaret, ‘Die Grosse Moschee von ar-Raqqa’, in Daiber and Becker, Raqqa III, pp. 19–23. Korn used Bell's photograph of the minaret (see pl. 4b; it is acknowledged on p. 164).
223. Bell, Amurath, pp. 54, 56–7; Milwright, Introduction to Islamic Archaeology, p. 80.
224. Bell, Amurath, p. 55.
225. Milwright, Introduction to Islamic Archaeology, p. 80.
226. K.A.C. Creswell, Short Account of Early Muslim Architecture (Harmondsworth, 1958), pp. 184–6.
227. Ibid., p. 187.
228. Robert Hillenbrand, ‘Eastern Islamic influences in Syria: Raqqa and Qalʽat Jaʽbar in the later 12th century’, in Julian Raby (ed.), The Art of Syria and the Jazśra (Oxford, 1985), pp. 27–36.
229. Lorenz Korn, ‘Das Baghdad-Tor (Südosttor der Halbrundstadt)’, in Daiber and Becker, Raqqa III, pp. 11–18.
230. Bell, Amurath, p. 59, fn. 1.
231. Ibid., p. 135; this point is also noted by Hill
enbrand, ‘Eastern Islamic influences’, p. 28.
232. Ibid., p. 28.
233. For a brief yet succinct synopsis of all of the proposed dates for the Baghdad Gate and their explanations, see Stefan Heidemann, ‘The citadel of al-Raqqa and fortifications in the Middle Euphrates area’, in H. Kennedy (ed.), Muslim Military Architecture in Greater Syria (Leiden, 2006), p. 140, fn. 54.
234. Bell, Amurath, p. 58; GB photographs, Album J_180, J_183 and J_184, Gertrude Bell Archive. A full report on the excavations of the Qasr al-Banat has not yet appeared, although it is believed to have been reconstructed with a central courtyard that has four iwans arranged around it. The back iwan led to the principal room of the building, while lesser rooms and corridors filled the area between and behind the iwans, many of these with walls and vaults coated with plaster. Hillenbrand, ‘Eastern Islamic influences’, p. 37; see also Stefan Heidemann, ‘Die Geschichte von ar-Raqqa/ar-Rafiqa – ein Überblick’, in Heidemann and Becker, Raqqa II, p. 48.
235. Hillenbrand, ‘Eastern Islamic influences’, p. 38.
236. Bell photos J_180 and J_183, Gertrude Bell Archive. The online image of J_183 (www.gerty.ncl.ac.uk/photo_details.php?photo_id=2772) is upside down.
237. Bell photo J_184, Gertrude Bell Archive; Bell refers to this as a dome set upon squinch-arches: Amurath, p. 58; Hillenbrand, ‘Eastern Islamic influences’, p. 38.
238. See Creswell's photograph of the Qasr al-Banat, now housed in the Creswell Archive of the Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology: http://creswell.ashmolean.museum/archive/EA.CA.6692-0.html.
239. Bell, Amurath, p. 58; Hillenbrand, ‘Eastern Islamic influences’, p. 36.
240. Bell, Amurath, p. 58; Bell acknowledges that her Swiss scholarly acquaintance, M. van Berchem, had published this inscription in F. Sarre and E. Herzfeld's Archäologische Reise, which was to appear shortly after Amurath to Amurath, so it is likely that her dating of this arcade came from him.
241. K.A.C. Creswell, Early Muslim Architecture, vol. 2 (New York, 1979), p. 47.
242. Compare Bell's plan, Amurath, fig. 36, with the plan of the mosque, Abb. 1, in N. Hagen, M. al-Hassoun and M. Meinecke, ‘Die Grosse Moschee von ar-Rāfiqa’, in Daiber and Becker, Raqqa III. Bell rightly reconstructed three entrances on the mosque's north side, contra Herzfeld's own estimation of five entrances. This was noted by Creswell and confirmed by the most recent German investigations; Creswell, Early Muslim Architecture, vol. 2, p. 48 and fns. 2–3.
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