p. 155. Picts: see I. Henderson, The Picts (London, 1967), and Anderson, Kings, pp. 119-31, 165-204, for the standard view, contested in various ways by Smyth, Warlords, pp. 57-83; D. Broun, ‘Pictish Kings 761-839’, in S. M. Foster (ed.), The St Andrews Sarcophagus (Dublin, 1998), pp. 71-83; B. T. Hudson, The Kings of Celtic Scotland (Westport, Conn., 1994), pp. 8-33, not all of whom I follow. Even Pictish matriliny is contested; see the overview in A. Woolf, ‘Pictish Matriliny Reconsidered’, Innes Review, 49 (1998), pp. 147-67; see also idem, in Scottish Historical Review, 85 (2006), pp. 182-201, for the location of Fortriu.
p. 156. Regiones, etc.: see S. Bassett, in idem, The Origins, pp. 3-27; C. Scull, in Anglo-Saxon Studies in Archaeology and History, 6 (1993), pp. 65-82; J. Blair, Anglo-Saxon Oxfordshire (Stroud, 1994), pp. 29-32; H. Hamerow, in NCMH, vol. 1, pp. 263-88. For the Fens, W. Davies and H. Vierck, ‘The Contexts of Tribal Hidage’, Frühmittelalterliche Studien, 8 (1974), pp. 223-93. The date of the Tribal Hidage is disputed.
p. 157. Archaeology: Arnold, An Archaeology, esp. pp. 33-100; H. Hamerow, Early Medieval Settlements (Oxford, 2002), pp. 46-51, 93-9; C. Hills, Origins of the English (London, 2003).
p. 158. Yeavering: B. Hope-Taylor, Yeavering (London, 1977).
p. 159. Mercia: N. P. Brooks, in Bassett, The Origins, pp. 159-70; S. Bassett, in Anglo-Saxon Studies in Archaeology and History, 11 (2000), pp. 107-18.
p. 159. Texts: Beowulf has many translations; S. Heaney, Beowulf (London, 1999) is a poetic classic; but I have used that in S. A. J. Bradley, Anglo-Saxon Poetry (London, 1982), pp. 408-94. Felix, Life of St Guthlac, ed. and trans. B. Colgrave, Felix’s Life of Saint Guthlac (Cambridge, 1956), here cc. 16-18. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle has a convenient trans. in EHD, vol. 1, 2nd edn. (London, 1979), pp. 146-261, here at pp. 175-6, 180; see S. D. White, in Viator, 20 (1989), pp. 1-18, by far the best analysis of 786 in Wessex.
p. 160. Bede on land: Letter to Ecgbert, trans. EHD, vol. 1, pp. 799-810.
p. 160. Ports: the best recent surveys are C. Scull, in J. Hines (ed.), The Anglo-Saxons (Woodbridge, 1997), pp. 269-310; D. Hill and R. Cowie (eds.), Wics (Sheffield, 2001). The classic is R. Hodges, Dark Age Economics (London, 1982).
p. 161. Exiles: e.g. The Wanderer, trans. EHD, vol. 1, pp. 870-71; Felix, Life of St Guthlac, cc. 40, 42.
p. 161. Land units becoming estates: R. Faith, The English Peasantry and the Growth of Lordship (Leicester, 1997).
p. 161. Conversion: see B. Yorke, The Conversion of Britain, 600-800 (Harlow, 2006); J. Blair, The Church in Anglo-Saxon Society (Oxford, 2005), pp. 8-181; H. Mayr-Harting, The Coming of Christianity to Anglo-Saxon England, 3rd edn. (London, 1991); J. Campbell, Essays in Anglo-Saxon History (London, 1986), pp. 1-84; P. Wormald, ‘Bede, “Beowulf” and the Conversion of the Anglo-Saxon Aristocracy’, in R. T. Farrell (ed.), Bede and Anglo-Saxon England (Oxford, 1978), pp. 32-95.
p. 162. Church organization: C. Cubitt, Anglo-Saxon Church Councils, c.650-c.850 (Leicester, 1995). Bede’s imagery: P. Wormald, in idem (ed.), Ideal and Reality in Frankish and Anglo-Saxon Society (Oxford, 1983), pp. 99-129; N. Brooks, Bede and the English (Jarrow, 1999).
p. 163. Law: P. Wormald, Legal Culture in the Early Medieval West (London, 1999), pp. 179-99.
p. 163. The end of autonomous kingdoms: Yorke, Kings, pp. 31-2, 51; H. P. R. Finberg, The Early Charters of the West Midlands, 2nd edn. (Leicester, 1972), pp. 177-80.
p. 163. Common burdens: N. Brooks, Communities and Warfare, 700-1400 (London, 2000), pp. 32-47.
p. 163. Offa’s Dyke: P. Squatriti, in Past and Present, 176 (2002), pp. 11-65.
p. 163. Coins: P. Grierson and M. Blackburn, Medieval European Coinage, vol. 1 (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 158, 277-82; J. Story, Carolingian Connections (Aldershot, 2003), pp. 190-5. Councils: Cubitt, Church Councils.
p. 164. Canterbury: N. P. Brooks, The Early History of the Church of Canterbury (Leicester, 1984), pp. 111-27.
p. 164. Civil wars in Wessex, Mercia and Northumbria: P. Wormald, in Campbell, The Anglo-Saxons, pp. 114-16.
p. 164. Offa and Charlemagne: J. M. Wallace-Hadrill, Early Germanic Kingship in England and on the Continent (Oxford, 1971), pp. 98-123; Story, Carolingian Connections, pp. 169-211.
p. 165. Clientship in Ireland: see F. Kelly, A Guide to Early Irish Law (Dublin, 1988), pp. 29-33 (the whole book is the best survey of the law tracts); T. M. Charles-Edwards, Early Irish and Welsh Kinship (Oxford, 1993), pp. 337-63; idem, ‘Críth Gablach and the Law of Status’, Peritia, 5 (1986), pp. 53-73; N. Patterson, Cattle-lords and Clansmen, 2nd edn. (Notre Dame, Ind., 1994), pp. 150-78.
p. 166. Expansion of kingdoms: D. Ó Corráin, ‘Nationality and Kingship in Pre-Norman Ireland’, in T. W. Moody (ed.), Nationality and the Pursuit of National Independence (Belfast, 1978), pp. 1-35, esp. pp. 9-10.
p. 166. Críth Gablach: trans. E. O. MacNeill, in Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, 36 C (1921-4), pp. 281-306; here p. 304, translation modified.
p. 166. Gessa: Byrne, Irish Kings, p. 23 (and in general pp. 15-35 for rituals).
p. 166. Fifth century: see esp. Charles-Edwards, Early Christian Ireland, pp. 441-68.
p. 167. Diarmait and Báetán: Byrne, Irish Kings, pp. 87-114.
p. 167. Cathal, Donnchad, Feidlimid: Byrne, Irish Kings, pp. 202-29; Charles-Edwards, Early Christian Ireland, pp. 594-8.
p. 168. Bishops and monasteries: see Charles-Edwards, Early Christian Ireland, pp. 241-81, 416-29; M. Herbert, Iona, Kells and Derry (Oxford, 1988), esp. pp. 53-6. Columba is the subject of the Irish world’s emblematic saint’s life, trans. most recently in R. Sharpe, Adomnán of Iona: Life of St Columba (Harmondsworth, 1995). The classic here is Hughes, Church in Early Irish Society.
p. 169. Picts: for debates, see notes to p. 155; for Dál Riata see J. Bannerman, Studies in the History of Dalriada (Edinburgh, 1974); Anderson, Kings, pp. 145-65, 179 ff.; R. Sharpe, ‘The Thriving of Dalriada’, in S. Taylor (ed.), Kings, Clerics and Chronicles in Scotland, 500-1297 (Dublin, 2000), pp. 47-61.
p. 169. Kenneth, etc.: see Anderson, Kings, pp. 196-200; Hudson, Kings, pp. 36-47; P. Wormald, in B. Crawford (ed.), Scotland in Dark Age Britain (St Andrews, 1996), pp. 131-60.
Chapter 8
The key overviews which cover this chapter as a whole are P. Brown, The Rise of Western Christendom (2nd edn., Oxford 1997), and J. M. H. Smith, Europe after Rome (Oxford, 2005), which is the best current synthesis of cultural history. See further B. Rosenwein, Emotional Communities in the Early Middle Ages (Ithaca, NY, 2006). For the interface between Christianity and traditional cultures, V. I. J. Flint, The Rise of Magic in Early Medieval Europe (Oxford, 1993) is essential; for East and West, so is J. Herrin, The Formation of Christendom (Princeton, 1987). J. M. Wallace-Hadrill, The Frankish Church (Oxford, 1983) is a valuable overview. R. McKitterick (ed.), The Early Middle Ages (Oxford, 2001), covers social and cultural history. For social history as a whole, the best surveys are in French, P. Depreux, Les Sociétés occidentales du milieu du VIe à la fin du IXe siècle (Rennes, 2002) and R. Le Jan, La Société du haut Moyen ge (Paris, 2003). All these books cover the Carolingian period as well. For gender, see the notes to p. 195.
p. 170. Valerius: ed. and trans. C. M. Aherne, Valerio of Bierzo (Washington, 1949).
p. 170. Martin of Braga: De Correctione Rusticorum is trans. C. W. Barlow, Iberian fathers, vol. 1 (Washington, 1969), pp. 71-85. Slate text: I. Velázquez Soriano (ed.), Documentos de época visigoda escritos en pizarra (siglos VI-VIII) (Turnhout, 2000), n. 104.
p. 171. Weather magic: Flint, Rise of Magic, pp. 110-15, 187-90. Gregory: The Miracles of the Bishop St Martin, trans. R. Van Dam, Saints and their Miracles in Late Antique Gaul (Princeton, 1993), pp. 200-303, 1.34 (cf. 1.11 and Gregory of Tours, Histories, trans. L. Thorpe as The History of the Franks (Harmondsworth 1974), 5.37 for Martin of Braga). Note that manuscripts of De Correctione were available in Gaul by the start of the seventh century, and thus perhaps in Gregory’s lifetime: see Y. Hen, in E. Cohen and M. B. de Jong (eds.), Medieval Transforma
tions (Leiden, 2001), pp. 35-49.
p. 171. Gregory’s letters: see R. A. Markus, Gregory the Great and his World (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 206-9, and more generally pp. 163-87.
p. 172. Gregories: Gregory the Great, Letters, 1.41, trans. J. R. C. Martyn, The Letters of Gregory the Great (Toronto, 2004); Gregory of Tours, Histories, 9.15 for Toledo, 5.43, 6.40 for dinner-time polemics.
p. 172. Priscillianists: I Braga, c. 8, in J. Vives (ed.), Concilios visigóticos e hispano-romanos (Barcelona, 1963).
p. 173. Literacy: see in general R. McKitterick (ed.), The Uses of Literacy in Early Medieval Europe (Cambridge, 1990).
p. 173. Gregory of Tours: see M. Bonnet, Le Latin de Grégoire de Tours (Paris, 1890), pp. 48-76.
p. 173. Bede’s library: Bede, Lives of the Abbots of Wearmouth and Jarrow, trans. J. F. Webb, The Age of Bede (Harmondsworth, 1983), pp. 185-208, cc. 4, 6, 9; for polemics, Bede, Letter to Plegwin, in idem, The Reckoning of Time, trans. F. Wallis (Liverpool, 1999), pp. 405-15.
p. 174. Gregory’s unpopularity: see P. Llewellyn, in Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 25 (1974), pp. 363-80.
p. 174. Columbanus: Sancti Columbani Opera, ed. and trans. G. S. M. Walker (Dublin, 1957), letter 5.
p. 174. ‘Micro-Christendoms’: Brown, Rise of Western Christendom, ch. 13.
p. 175. Prostitutes: Boniface, The Letters of Saint Boniface, trans. E. Emerton (New York, 1940), letter 72; passports: Ratchis, law 13, trans. K. F. Drew, The Lombard Laws (Philadelphia, 1973), p. 224, cf. W. Pohl, in idem et al. (eds.), The Transformation of Frontiers (Leiden, 2001), pp. 117-41.
p. 176. Irminsul: Royal Frankish Annals, trans. B. W. Scholz, Carolingian Chronicles (Ann Arbor, 1970), pp. 48-9. See in general for the issue of paganism J. Palmer, in EME, 15 (2007), pp. 402-25.
p. 176. Eostre: Bede, The Reckoning of Time, pp. 53-4.
p. 176. Eligius: Vita Eligii, trans. J. A. McNamara, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/eligius.html, 2.16, 20. Boniface on Rome: Letters, 40-41.
p. 177. Gregory: Histories, 6.6, 8.15-16 (ascetics), 9.6, cf. 10.25 for further south (unauthorized miracle-workers), 5.21, 8.34 (Winnoch), with Life of the Fathers, trans. E. James (Liverpool, 1985), 2.2 (dead saints). For bishops and cults, see R. Van Dam, Leadership and Community in Late Antique Gaul (Berkeley, 1985), pp. 179-201, 230-76; idem, Saints and their Miracles, pp. 50-81.
p. 178. Gregory the Great: Markus, Gregory the Great, pp. 17-31. Gregory on ascetics: see his Dialogues, trans. O. J. Zimmerman (Washington, 1959).
p. 178. Muirchu: Life of St Patrick, trans. A. B. E. Hood, St Patrick (Chichester, 1978), pp. 81-98, cc. 17, 18, 24, 26, 29.
p. 178. Cuthbert: see Two Lives of Saint Cuthbert, ed. and trans. B. Colgrave (Cambridge, 1940).
p. 178. Aldebert: Boniface, Letters, 47.
p. 179. ‘Rustic’: Bede, Life of Cuthbert (in Two Lives, pp. 143-307), c. 3; cf. P. Brown, The Cult of the Saints (Chicago, 1981), pp. 119-27.
p. 179. Martin: Van Dam, Saints and their Miracles.
p. 179. Six cult sites: Vita Balthildis, trans. in P. Fouracre and R. Gerberding, Late Merovingian France (Manchester, 1996), pp. 118-32, c. 9; cf. Fredegar, Chronica, ed. and trans. J. M. Wallace-Hadrill, The Fourth Book of the Chronicle of Fredegar (London, 1960), 4.54, and Van Dam, Saints and their Miracles, pp. 22-7.
p. 180. Martin’s body: Gregory, Histories, 1.48.
p. 180. Wonder-workers: see Flint, Rise of Magic, a remarkable analysis. Laws: Rothari 376, Liutprand 84-5, trans. Drew, The Lombard Laws: Laws of the Salian Franks, trans. K. F. Drew (Philadelphia, 1991), c. 19.
p. 180. Gregory: Van Dam, Saints and their Miracles, pp. 191-2 (plague); Gregory of Tours, Histories, 7.44, 5.14; for the sortes, Flint, Rise of Magic, pp. 220-6, 273-86.
p. 181. Anglo-Saxon medicine: texts are ed. and trans. O. Cockayne, Leechdoms, Wortcunning and Starcraft of Early England, 3 vols. (London 1864-6); see K. L. Jolly, Popular Religion in Late Saxon England (Chapel Hill, NC, 1996).
p. 182. Doctors: Gregory of Tours, Histories, 5.6 (but cf. 5.35); Miracles of the Bishop St Martin, 2.1; Flint, Rise of Magic, p. 150 for Caesarius; Lives of the Fathers of Mérida, trans. A. T. Fear, Lives of the Visigothic Fathers (Liverpool, 1997), 4.1-2.
p. 182. Parishes: for Lucca, M. Giusti and P. Guidi (eds.), Rationes decimarum Italiae nei secoli XIII e XIV. Tuscia, vol. 2 (Rome, 1942), pp. 255-85; for Francia, Le Jan, La Société, pp. 61-3; for England, J. Blair, The Church in Anglo-Saxon Society (Oxford, 2005), pp. 79-134, 368-504; for a comparative discussion of rural churches in the West, S. Wood, The Proprietary Church in the Medieval West (Oxford, 2006), pp. 33-108.
p. 183. Daniel: Boniface, Letters, 51, 92.
p. 183. Ravenna: Agnellus, The Book of Pontiffs of the Church of Ravenna, trans. D. Mauskopf Deliyannis (Washington, 2004), pp. 248-53.
p. 183. Prisoner miracles: e.g. Venantius Fortunatus, Vita Germani, MGH, SRM, vol. 7 (Hanover, 1920), pp. 372-418, cc. 10, 30-1, 61, 66-7; Vita Eligii, MGH, SRM, vol. 4 (Hanover, 1902), pp. 663-741, 1.31, 2.15, 66, 80 (also available from the website cited in n. to p. 176); Vita Amandi, MGH, SRM, vol. 5 (Hanover, 1920) pp. 428-49, c. 14; Arbeo, Vita Corbiniani, MGH, SRM, vol. 6 (Hanover, 1913), pp. 560-93, cc. 10-13, all ed. by B. Krusch and W. Levison.
p. 183. Ransoming: in general, see W. Klingshirn, in Journal of Roman Studies, 77 (1985), pp. 183-203.
p. 183. Fidelis, Masona: Lives of the Fathers of Mérida, 4.7-9, 5.8.19, cf. Sisebut, Life of Desiderius, trans. Fear, Lives, pp. 1-14, c. 11. (The Mérida text partially copies Sisebut’s Life, hence similarities in phrasing.)
p. 184. Praejectus of Clermont: Passio Praeiecti, trans. in Fouracre and Gerberding, Late Merovingian France, cc. 24, 29-31; Vita Boniti, ed. Krusch, MGH, SRM, vol. 6, pp. 119-39.
p. 184. War: F. Prinz, Klerus und Krieg im früheren Mittelalter (Stuttgart, 1971), pp. 46-72. Savaric and Hainmar: P. Fouracre, The Age of Charles Martel (Harlow, 2000), pp. 90, 92. Trier: E. Ewig, Trier im Merowingerreich (Trier, 1954), pp. 133-43. Walprand: CDL, vol. 1, n. 114.
p. 185. Columba, etc.: M. Herbert, Iona, Kells and Derry (Oxford, 1988), pp. 36-67; Bede, HE, 4.23; Vita Geretrudis, trans. in Fouracre and Gerberding, Late Merovingian France, pp. 319-29, c. 1. For monastic expansion in general, see M. Dunn, The Emergence of Monasticism (Oxford, 2000), pp. 107-208; for the associated hagiography, see A.-M. Helvétius, Le Saint et le moine (Paris, in press). For an important comparative analysis of the complexity of control over monasteries across Europe, see Wood, Proprietary Church, pp. 109-244. Note that ‘monasteries’, here and later, include nunneries, and also the double monasteries, with monks and nuns, headed by an abbess, which were common in this period.
p. 186. False monasteries: Bede, Letter to Ecgbert, trans. EHD, vol. 1, pp. 799-810, cc. 11-14 (cf. P. Sims-Williams, Religion and Literature in Western England, 600-800 (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 126-9, and Blair, Church, pp. 100-108); Regula Monastica Communis, trans. C .W. Barlow, Iberian Fathers, vol. 2 (Washington, 1969), pp. 176-206, cc. 1, 2.
p. 186. Land: D. Herlihy, ‘Church Property on the European Continent, 701-1200’, Speculum , 36 (1961), pp. 81-105; for gift exchange, e.g. M. de Jong, In Samuel’s Image (Leiden, 1996), pp. 267-77. The basic international starting point for gifts to churches is F. Bougard et al. (eds.), Sauver son âme et se perpétuer (Rome, 2005).
p. 187. Burial, etc.: see C. La Rocca, in L. Paroli (ed.), L’Italia centro-settentrionale in eta‘ longobarda (Florence, 1997), pp. 31-54; for paganism and competition, G. Halsall, Early Medieval Cemeteries (Glasgow, 1995), pp. 61-8, gives a succinct survey.
p. 187. Balthild: Vita Balthildis, c. 12.
p. 188. Sigeberht, Heremod: Bede, HE, 3.18; Beowulf, trans. S. A. J. Bradley, Anglo-Saxon Poetry (London, 1982), pp. 408-94, lines 1707-23.
p. 189. Hunting: see J. Jarnut, Herrschaft und Ethnogenese im Frühmittelalter (Münster, 2002), pp. 375-408; Cap., vol. 1, nn. 23 c.17, 49 c.1, 140 c.7, 141 c.22.
p. 189. Eligius: Vita Eligii, 1. 11-12.
p. 189. Halls: Depreux, Les Sociétés oc
cidentales, pp. 124-5. Drink: Y. Hen, Culture and Religion in Merovingian Gaul, AD 481-751 (Leiden, 1995), pp. 234-49; for Salic law, G. A. Beckmann, ‘Aus den letzten Jahrzehnten des Vulgärlateins in Frankreich’, Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, 79 (1963), pp. 305-34; The Tale of Macc Da Thó’s Pig is trans. J. Gantz, Early Irish Myths and Sagas (Harmondsworth, 1981), pp. 179-87.
p. 190. Dining or not: Sulpicius Severus, Vita Martini, trans. in T. F. X. Noble and T. Head (eds.), Soldiers of Christ (State College, Pa., 1995), pp. 3-29, c. 20; Vita Eucherii, ed. Levison, MGH, SRM, vol. 7, pp. 46-53, c. 8.
p. 190. Wilfrid, etc.: Stephanus, Vita Wilfridi, ed. and trans. B. Colgrave, The Life of Bishop Wilfrid by Eddius Stephanus (Cambridge, 1927), c. 2; Beowulf, line 358; Bede, HE, 3.5.
p. 190. Wealhtheow: Beowulf, lines 607-41; see M. J. Enright, Lady with the Mead Cup (Dublin, 1996), pp. 2-37 and passim; cf. Theodelinda in Paul the Deacon, History of the Langobards, trans. W. D. Foulke (Philadelphia, 1907), 3.30.
p. 191. Argait: Paul the Deacon, History, 6.24; for military tactics, G. Halsall, Warfare and Society in the Barbarian West, 450-900 (London, 2003), pp. 194-204.
p. 192. Precariae: for the politics see e.g. I. Wood, in W. Davies and P. Fouracre (eds.), Property and Power in the Early Middle Ages (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 31-52.
p. 192. Kin: see esp. R. Le Jan, Famille et pouvoir dans le monde franc VIIe - Xe siècle (Paris, 1995), pp. 159-262, 381-427; Smith, Europe after Rome, pp. 83 - 114.
p. 192. Ireland: see T. M. Charles-Edwards, Early Irish and Welsh Kinship (Oxford, 1993), pp. 49-61, 422 ff.; Italy: Liutprand 13, trans. Drew, The Lombard Laws.
p. 193. Feud: Liutprand 199; Gregory of Tours, Histories, 10.27, 7.47, 9.19. For an important critique of the idea of feud in this period see G. Halsall, in idem (ed.), Violence and Society in the Early Medieval West (Woodbridge, 1998), pp. 1-45; though I use a different definition of ‘feud’ from him, I have followed his analyses. For Frankish feud, see J. M. Wallace-Hadrill, The Long-haired Kings (London, 1962), pp. 121-47; P. Fouracre, in Halsall (ed.), Violence, pp. 60-75; P. Depreux, in D. Barthelemy et al. (eds.), La Vengeance, 400-1200 (Rome, 2006), pp. 65-85.
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