130. Pratt, Battlefield and Classroom, 109, 112–15; Richard H. Pratt, American Indians, Chained and Unchained: Being an Address before the Pennsylvania Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion, Philadelphia … (1912), 5–6.
131. Pratt, Battlefield and Classroom, 158.
132. Nye, Carbine and Lance, 234; Lookingbill, War Dance at Fort Marion, 66.
133. On the prisoners, see Lookingbill, War Dance at Fort Marion; on their art, see Rand, Kiowa Humanity and the Invasion of the State, 101–7; Joyce M. Szabo, Art from Fort Marion: The Silberman Collection (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007); Szabo, Howling Wolf and the History of Ledger Art (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1994); Szabo, “Medicine Lodge Remembered,” American Indian Art Magazine 14, no. 4 (1989), 52–59, 87 (Howling Wolf in Black Kettle’s village, 58); Herman J. Viola, Warrior Artists: Historic Cheyenne and Kiowa Indian Ledger Art Drawn by Making Medicine and Zotom (Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 1998); Karen Daniels Peterson, Plains Indian Art from Fort Marion (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1971).
134. Lookingbill, War Dance at Fort Marion, 150–52, 186.
135. Mooney, Calendar History of the Kiowa Indians, 344.
136. Lookingbill, War Dance at Fort Marion, 175; Clark, Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock, 29–30.
137. Greene, One Hundred Summers, 187; “Medicine Lodge Treaties Celebrated by a Pageant,” New York Times, October 23, 1927, 12; Douglas C. Jones, “Medicine Lodge Revisited,” Kansas Historical Quarterly 35 (Summer 1969), 130–42; “Indian Peace Treaty Pageant,” http://peacetreaty.org.
138. Ernest Renan, “What Is a Nation?” in Nation and Narration, ed. Homi K. Bhabha (London: Routledge, 1990), 11.
Conclusion
1. IALT, 998–1007.
2. Red Cloud quoted in Edward Lazarus, Black Hills/White Justice: The Sioux Nation versus the United States, 1775 to the Present (New York: HarperCollins, 1991), 62. A full version of Red Cloud’s Cooper Union speech as reported in the New York Times is in Wayne Moquin and Charles Van Doren, eds., Great Documents in American Indian History (New York: Praeger, 1973), 211–13. Jeffrey Ostler, The Lakotas and the Black Hills (New York: Penguin, 2010), 66, 73.
3. Jill St. Germain, Indian Treaty-Making Policy in the United States and Canada, 1867–1877 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001), 36. Challenging the “broken treaties refrain,” Germain offers a more optimistic interpretation of the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie than is common in much of the literature; Jill St. Germain, Broken Treaties: United States and Canadian Relations with the Lakotas and the Plains Cree, 1868–1885 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2009).
4. IALT, 1015–20.
5. IALT, 1020–24.
6. The Nez Perce treaties are in IALT, 843–48, 1024–25. Lucullus Virgil McWhorter, Yellow Wolf: His Own Story (1940; Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers, 1995), 35; Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., The Nez Perce Indians and the Opening of the Northwest (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965), 421 (Lawyer’s notebook); Elliott West, The Last Indian War: The Nez Perce Story (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 93–94 (90 percent at 8 cents an acre); Chief Joseph, “An Indian’s View of Indian Affairs,” North American Review (April 1879), 419, and quoted in Josephy, Nez Perce Indians, 488–89.
7. West, The Last Indian War.
8. Ross’s letter reprinted in New York Times, November 5, 1867, 2.
9. Proceedings of the Great Peace Commission of 1867–1868, with an introduction by Vine Deloria, Jr., and Raymond DeMallie (Washington, D.C.: Institute for the Development of Indian Law, 1975), 157–71, quotations at 169; RG 48, 665, 2: 178–96; Papers Relating to Talks and Councils Held with the Indians in Dakota and Montana Territories in the Years 1866–1869 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1910), 123, 128–31 (quotations at 131); ARCIA, 1868: 7–15; quote at 12.
10. Proceedings of the Great Peace Commission, 165; RG 48, 665, 2: 185; Papers Relating to Talks and Councils Held with the Indians in Dakota and Montana Territories, 123.
11. Henry B. Whipple, “The Indian System,” North American Review 99 (1964), 449–64, quotes at 450–51; New York Times extract quoted as an epigram in Stan Hoig, White Man’s Paper Trail: Grand Councils and Treaty-Making on the Central Plains (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2006).
12. Richard Irving Dodge, Our Wild Indians: Thirty-Three Years’ Personal Experience among the Red Men of the Great West. (1882; reprint, Freeport, N.Y.: Books for Libraries Press, 1970), 89–90.
13. Peter Cozzens, ed., Eyewitnesses to the Indian Wars, Vol. 2: Conquering the Southern Plains (Mechanicsburg, Pa.: Stackpole, 2003), 250–51, 262.
14. ARCIA for 1869: 6.
15. St. Germain, Indian Treaty-Making Policy, ch. 9 (outdated and unfair quotation at 150); Deloria and DeMallie, Documents of American Indian Diplomacy, 1: ch. 6; Francis Paul Prucha, ed., Documents of United States Indian Policy (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1975), 136; John R. Wunder, “No More Treaties: The Resolution of 1871 and the Alteration of Indian Rights to Their Homelands,” in Working the Range: Essays on the History of Western Land Management and the Environment, ed. John R. Wunder (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1985), 39–56; Kevin Bruyneel, The Third Space of Sovereignty: The Post-Colonial Politics of U.S.-Indigenous Relations (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007), ch. 3.
16. Peter J. Powell, People of the Sacred Mountain, 2 vols. (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1979), 2: 798–803; Stan Hoig, The Western Odyssey of John Simpson Smith: Frontiersman and Indian Interpreter (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2004), 223–29.
17. Deloria and DeMallie, Documents of American Indian Diplomacy, 1: ch. 7.
18. Kevin Gover, “Statutes as Sources of Modern Indian Rights: Child Welfare, Gaming, and Repatriation,” in Treaties with American Indians: An Encyclopedia of Rights, Conflicts, and Sovereignty, ed. Donald L. Fixico, 3 vols. (Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, 2008), 1: 109–29.
19. Bruyneel, Third Space of Sovereignty, ch. 3, Downing quotation at 70; Patrick Wolfe, “After the Frontier: Separation and Absorption in US Indian Policy,” Settler Colonial Studies 1 (2011), 13, 33.
20. N. Bruce Duthu, American Indians and the Law (New York: Penguin, 2008), 120; James W. Parins, Elias Cornelius Boudinot: A Life on the Cherokee Border (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. 2006), ch. 5.
21. Richard White, Railroaded: The Transcontinentals and the Making of Modern America (New York: W. W. Norton, 2011), 134–39; H. Craig Miner, The Corporation and the Indian: Tribal Sovereignty and Industrial Civilization in Indian Territory, 1865–1907 (1976; Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989), 44–45, 81–82, 120–21; Parins, Elias Cornelius Boudinot, ch. 6.
22. Thomas Powers, The Killing of Crazy Horse (New York: Knopf, 2010).
23. Francis Paul Prucha, American Indian Policy in Crisis: Christian Reformers and the Indian, 1865–1900 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1976), 231.
24. Robert M. Utley, The Last Days of the Sioux Nation (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1963), Crook quoted at 53. The 1889 agreement is in IALT, 1: 328–39, and Deloria and DeMallie, Documents of American Indian Diplomacy, 1: 307–15.
25. William T. Hagan, Taking Indian Lands: The Cherokee (Jerome) Commission, 1889–1893 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2003).
26. Hagan Taking Indian Lands, ch. 4, Little Medicine quoted at 78. George Bent later became an informant and interpreter for the scholar George Bird Grinnell, gathering people for interviews and translating their answers to Grinnell’s questions. He became acquainted with George Hyde, one of Grinnell’s research assistants and around 1905 began a lengthy correspondence—hundreds of letters on the history and culture of the Southern Cheyennes—that continued almost until Bent’s death in 1918. Hyde wrote a book from Bent’s material, although it was not published until half a century later. The director of the University of Oklahoma Press rediscovered the manuscript and, with the support of the aged Hyde, edited and published the Life of George Bent,
Written from His Letters (1968). Lincoln B. Faller, “Making Medicine against ‘White Man’s Side of Story’: George Bent’s Letters to George Hyde,” American Indian Quarterly 24 (Winter 2000), 64–90; David Fridtjof Halaas and Andrew E. Masich, Halfbreed: The Remarkable Story of George Bent (Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo, 2004), 313–26.
27. Hagan, Taking Indian Lands, ch. 9; Blue Clark, Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock: Treaty Rights and Indian Law at the End of the Nineteenth Century (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999), ch. 5, quote at 46; Ann Laquer Estin, “Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock: The Long Shadow,” in The Aggressions of Civilization: Federal Indian Policy since the 1880s, ed. Sandra L. Cadwalader and Vine Deloria, Jr. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1984), 216–45.
28. Estin, “Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock: The Long Shadow,” 222–26, 229.
29. Hagan, Taking Indian Lands, ch. 9; Clark, Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock, 45–48.
30. Estin, “Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock: The Long Shadow,” 227–28, 229–30; 56th Congress, 1st session, 1900, Senate Document 76.
31. Clark, Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock, 54–55.
32. Estin, “Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock: The Long Shadow,” 231–39; “Decision in the Case of Lone Wolf,” 57th Congress, 2nd session, Senate Document 148; Clark, Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock, 95; Bruyneel, Third Space of Sovereignty, 80–89.
33. Hagan Taking Indian Land, 206–7.
34. Estin, “Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock: The Long Shadow,” 239–40 (“at the whim”); Clark, Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock, ix–x. (David E. Wilkins, “The Reinvigoration of the Doctrine of ‘Implied Repeals’: A Requiem for Indigenous Treaty Rights,” The American Journal of Legal History 43 [1999], 1–26, argues that the Supreme Court lacks constitutional authority to abrogate specific treaty rights by implication or to divest tribes of their rights; that power is vested in Congress.)
35. Fixico, Treaties with American Indians, 1: 41–43, 62, 151; Charles F. Wilkinson, American Indians, Time, and the Law (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), 46–52.
36. Quoted in Francis Paul Prucha, American Indian Treaties: The History of a Political Anomaly (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 393.
37. Joanne Barker points out the “blatant contradictions…. between the recognition of the sovereignty of indigenous peoples through the entire apparatus of treaty making and the unmitigated negation of indigenous peoples’ status and rights by national legislation, military action, and judicial decision.” Joanne Barker, ed., Sovereignty Matters: Locations of Contestation and Possibility in Indigenous Struggles for Self-Determination (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2005), 6; Vine Deloria, Jr., Custer Died for Your Sins: An Indian Manifesto (1969; New York: Avon, 1970), 38, 56 (quote).
38. Bruyneel, Third Space of Sovereignty, 164–65.
39. Wilkinson, American Indians, Time, and the Law, 1–3.
40. Fay G. Cohen, Treaties on Trial: The Continuing Controversy over Northwest Indian Fishing Rights (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1986); Kent Richards, guest ed., “The Isaac I. Stevens and Joel Palmer Treaties, 1855–2005,” Oregon Historical Quarterly 106 (Fall 2005), 342–491, Boldt quotes in U.S. v. Washington, 1974, 384, Supp. 312.
41. Larry Nesper, The Walleye War: The Struggle for Ojibwe Spearfishing and Treaty Rights (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002); James M. McClurken, comp., Fish in the Lakes, Wild Rice, and Game in Abundance: Testimony on Behalf of Mille Lacs Ojibwe Hunting and Fishing Rights (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2000).
42. For a thorough account of the history of the Black Hills land claim, see Lazarus, Black Hills, and Ostler, Lakotas and the Black Hills.
43. Quoted in Lazarus, Black Hills, White Justice, 344.
44. Robert A. Williams, Jr., Like a Loaded Weapon: The Rehnquist Court, Indian Rights, and the Legal History of Racism in America (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005).
45. Wilkinson, American Indians, Time, and the Law, 121–22.
46. Vine Deloria, Jr., and Clifford M, Lytle, The Nations Within: The Past and Future of American Indian Sovereignty (New York: Pantheon, 1984), 8.
47. Russel Lawrence Barsh and James Youngblood Henderson, The Road: Indian Tribes and Political Liberty (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), 270.
48. Duthu, American Indians and the Law, 213–16.
49. Rebecca Tsosie, “Sacred Obligations: Intercultural Justice and the Discourse of Treaty Rights,” UCLA Law Review 1615 (2000), 1615–1672, quotes at 1658, 1699.
50. http://social.un.org/index/IndigenousPeoples/DeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples.aspx
51. Robert A. Williams, Jr., Linking Arms Together: American Indian Treaty Visions of Law and Peace, 1600–1800 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 5.
52. Jeffrey R. Dudas, The Cultivation of Resentment: Treaty Rights and the New Right (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2008), quotes at 4, 14.
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