by Benn Steil
5 Smith (1990:524); Howley (1950:230); Haas (2016:166).
6 Feigel (2016:322–24); Iber (August 24, 2015).
7 “Berlin Attitudes on the Air Lift: Further Trends,” Report No. 141, October 4, 1948, printed in Merritt and Merritt (1970:261); Raymond (May 29, 1949); Middleton (April 7, 1949).
8 Harrington (2012:202).
9 Decision of the Politburo of the CC VCP (b), Politburo Protocol 66/35, “The question of the SVAG,” November 12, 1948, RGASPI, Fond 17, op. 166, file 798, pp. 10–14.
10 Murphy to Marshall (with footnote from Bohlen), November 26, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1268–70; Marshall to Embassy in France, November 28, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1272–74; Harrington (2012:202–3); Memo for the President, November 26, 1948, Folder: “Memoranda for the President: Meeting Discussions: 1948,” Box 188, National Security Council—Meetings File, Subject File, President’s Secretary’s Files, Truman Papers, Truman Library.
11 Payne (1949:3).
12 Gallup I (1972:770–71).
13 McCullough (1992:729–31). The full text of the speech is here: http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=13282.
14 Whitman (October 9, 1974).
15 Hoffman, interview with Philip C. Brooks, October 25, 1964, Oral History Interviews, Truman Library: 9–11; Callender (November 3, 1949); Van der Beugel (1966:187); Hogan (1987:302); New York Times (February 22, 1950; Beisner (2006:163); Behrman (2007:227, 265–66, 279).
16 Judt (2005:171).
17 Marer (1974:135–63)—see in particular p. 147; Marer (1984:156); Mastny (1996:57–58). On the operation of Comecon broadly, see also Bideleux and Jeffries (1998:534–44).
18 Ford (July 19, 1948).
19 Murphy to Marshall, February 17, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 676; Lovett to the Embassy in the United Kingdom, January 12, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 652–55.
20 Lovett to the Embassy in France, December 7, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 1276–78; Lovett to the Embassy in the United Kingdom, January 12, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 652–55; Murphy to Julius C. Holmes, January 13, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 656–58; Clay to the Department of the Army, January 15, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 659–60.
21 Reuter draft letter to Clay, January 20, 1949, Bundesarchiv Koblenz Z14/22. (It is clear from a nearly identical English-language American aide-memoire that follows in the archive that the letter was sent.)
22 Douglas to Acheson, February 9, 1949, and Editorial Note, both in FRUS, 1949, III: 671.
23 Julius C. Holmes to Lovett, January 12, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 655; Douglas to Acheson, February 9, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 671; Douglas to Acheson, February 14, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 672; Harrington (2012:208).
24 Murphy to Acheson, February 17, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 676; Caffery to Acheson, February 19, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 678.
25 Douglas to Acheson, February 14, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 673.
26 This conversation, between Wrong and Bohlen, took place on January 13, 1949. Cited in Douglas to Acheson, February 22, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 683–85.
27 Beisner (2006:155).
28 Editorial Note in FRUS, 1949, III: 692; Harrington (2012:209); Jessup to Jacob D. Beam, March 14, 1949, 740.00119 Control (Germany)/3-1449, RG 59, National Archives. Department of State Bulletin, 1949, XX: 377–79.
29 Backer (1983:268).
30 Stivers (Fall 1997:590–91).
31 Ferdinand Friedensburg, memorandum, “Attlee Visit in Berlin,” March 5, 1949, Bundesarchiv Koblenz N1114/34.
32 West Berlin would not become part of the Federal Republic until reunification in 1990. Ferdinand Friedensburg, memorandum, “Attlee Visit in Berlin,” March 5, 1949, Bundesarchiv Koblenz N1114/34; Murphy to Acheson, January 26, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 188–90; Murphy to Acheson, February 4, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 191; Acheson to Murphy, February 7, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 192; James Riddleberger to Acheson, February 9, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 193–94; Editorial Note in FRUS, 1949, III: 194; Murphy to Charles E. Saltzman, February 17, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 200; James Riddleberger to Murphy, March 3, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 216; “Summary Record of a Meeting of United States Ambassadors at Paris,” October 22, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 288–89.
33 Harrington (2012:269).
34 The query came from American journalist Joseph Kingsbury-Smith.
35 Harrington (2012:264); Foy D. Kohler to Acheson, January 31, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, V: 562–63.
36 Italics added. Harrington (2012:265). German People’s Council statement is printed in Carlyle (1952:378–80).
37 Foy D. Kohler to Acheson, February 2, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 667–68.
38 Acheson to Douglas, February 25, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 688.
39 Acheson (1969:269).
40 Interview with Acheson, Wire II, July 9, 1953, Folder: “July 8–9, 1953,” Box 79, Princeton Seminars File, Acheson Papers, Truman Library: 9; Jessup, memorandum of conversation, February 15, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 694–95.
41 Harrington (2012:269).
42 Central Intelligence Agency, “The Succession of Power in the USSR,” January 13, 1948, Folder: “O.R.E. [Office of Reports and Estimates]: 1948: 6–15,” Box 216, Central Intelligence Reports File, Intelligence File, President’s Secretary’s Files, Truman Papers, Truman Library; Grob-Fitzgibbon (2016:96).
43 New York Times (March 20, 1982); Harrington (2012:270, 273).
44 Jessup, memorandum of conversation, March 15, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 695–98.
45 See, for example, Instructions for the Soviet financial expert regarding the negotiations in Paris on the Berlin question, Protocol 66/153, December 7, 1948, RGASPI, Fond 17, op. 166, file 798.
46 Jessup, memorandum of conversation, March 21, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 700–702.
47 Jessup, memorandum of conversation, March 21, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 700–704; “Summary of the Daily Meeting with the Secretary [of State],” March 22, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 706–7; Caffery to Acheson, May 12, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 752–54; “Record of Teletype Conference Between the Department of the Army and the Office of the United States Military Governor for Germany,” May 13, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 756–57; Acheson to James Riddleberger, May 17, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 775–76.
48 Acheson, memorandum of conversation, April 1, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 709–11; Douglas to Acheson, April 25, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 731.
49 Attlee to Truman, April 3, 1949, quoted in “Exchange of Letters Between the President and Prime Minister Attlee on the Anniversary of the Signing of the Foreign Assistance Act,” April 7, 1949, in Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry Truman, 1949; Behrman (2007:248); Time (April 11, 1949); Belair (April 15, 1949).
50 Huempfer (2016).
51 Behrman (2007:234); Harriman, statement before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, February 8, 1949, in Senate Committee on Foreign Relations (1949:108).
52 Behrman (2007:238–39); ECA (1949:68–71), Fifth Report to Congress.
53 Price (1955:245–46).
54 Charles W. Thayer to George V. Allen, Report, undated [1949], Folder: “European Trip, December 1948–January 1949, report to George V. Allen,” Box 11, Subject File, Thayer Papers, Truman Library.
55 Behrman (2007:240–42).
56 Gaddis (2011:317–19); Kennan to Lovett, June 30, 1948, in FRUS, Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment: 1945–1950: 716; Frank Wisner, memorandum of meeting with Hillenkoetter and Kennan, August 6, 1948, in FRUS, Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment: 1945–1950: 720; Kennan to Lovett, Folder: “Chronological July–December,” Box 33, PPS Records, RG 59, National Archives.
57 Steel (August 13, 1992).
58 Truman statement to National Security Council and the Joint Chiefs, Spring 1949, Box 150, President’s Security File, Truman Papers.
59 Kinnard (1980:38); Ritchie (2011:188).
60 McCullough (1992:741–42).
61 Haas (2016:257–58); Vandenberg (1952:475–80).
62 “Memorandum
of the Fourteenth Meeting of the Working Group Participating in the Washington Exploratory Talks on Security, September 7, 1948,” in FRUS, 1948, III: 234–35; Memorandum by the Participants in the Washington Security Talks (July 6 to September 9, 1948), “Washington Exploratory Conversations on Security,” September 9, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, III: 237–45; Lovett to Harriman, December 3, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, III: 304; Acheson, “Memorandum of Discussion with the President,” March 2, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, IV: 142.
63 Lovett to Harriman, December 3, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, III: 303, 305.
64 Truman, “Inaugural Address,” January 20, 1949, in Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry Truman, 1949. Available here: http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=13282.
65 Article 5: “The Parties agree that an armed attack against one or more of them in Europe or North America shall be considered an attack against them all and consequently they agree that, if such an armed attack occurs, each of them, in exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defence recognised by Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, will assist the Party or Parties so attacked by taking forthwith, individually and in concert with the other Parties, such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area. Any such armed attack and all measures taken as a result thereof shall immediately be reported to the Security Council. Such measures shall be terminated when the Security Council has taken the measures necessary to restore and maintain international peace and security.”
66 Haas (2016:260–64).
67 Frank McNaughton to Don Bermingham, memorandum, Folder: “April 1949,” Box 17, McNaughton Reports File, McNaughton Papers, Truman Library: 3; Haas (2016:259–69).
68 Robert T. Elson to Frank McNaughton, teletype with excerpts of Lovett testimony, Folder: “May 1–15, 1949,” Box 17, McNaughton Reports File, McNaughton Papers, Truman Library: 2.
69 “Summary of the Daily Meeting with the Secretary [of State],” March 22, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 706–7.
70 Frank McNaughton to Don Bermingham, memorandum, Folder: “April 1949,” Box 17, McNaughton Reports File, McNaughton Papers, Truman Library: 10.
71 Beisner (2006:129–30).
72 McCullough (1992:735).
73 Policy Planning Staff, “Considerations Affecting the Conclusion of a North Atlantic Security Pact,” PPS/43, November 23, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, III: 283–85.
74 “The North Atlantic Pact: Collective Defense and the Preservation of Peace, Security and Freedom in the North Atlantic Community,” statement by the State Department, March 20, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, IV: 240.
75 David K. E. Bruce to Webb, September 22, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 452.
76 West Germany would not join NATO until 1955, but the Article 6 provision encompassing attacks against occupation forces covered its territory.
77 Halle (1967:185); Judt (2005:150).
78 Halle (1967:173–74).
79 Simms (2013:410); Leffler (1992:322); “Minutes of the PPS,” October 18, 1949, Box 32, PPS Records, RG 59, National Archives.
80 Clay to Voorhees, FMPC 680, March 29, 1949, in Smith II (1974:1063). See also Smith (1990:534–35).
81 “Memorandum of Conversation Prepared in the Office of the United States High Commissioner for Germany,” November 13, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 309.
82 The Dawes Plan of 1924 allowed Germany to make reparations payments by borrowing money from American banks. The Locarno Treaties of 1925 involved Germany officially recognizing its new western borders.
83 Reynolds (2006:46). On the founding of the European Coal and Steel Community by France, Germany, Italy, and the three Benelux countries, see Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l’Europe (CVCE): http://www.cvce.eu/en/unit-content/-/unit/5cc6b004-33b7-4e44-b6db-f5f9e6c01023/678ed16c-b497-41e0-a1b6-d8cb0594f2ef.
84 Jessup, memorandum of conversation, April 5, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 712–15; Jessup, statement, April 5, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 716; Acheson, memorandum of conversation, April 1, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 709–12.
85 Jessup, memorandum of conversation, April 20, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 724–28; Douglas to Acheson, April 25, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 730–31.
86 Jessup, memorandum of conversation, April 11, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 717–20; Jessup, memorandum of conversation, April 13, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 722–24.
87 Acheson, memorandum of conversation, April 1, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 710; Jessup, memorandum of conversation, April 20, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 724–28.
88 Editorial Note in FRUS, 1949, III: 731.
89 George V. Allen to Charles Ross, April 27, 1949, Folder: “State Department, Correspondence, 1948-49 [6 of 6],” Box 40, Correspondence File, State Department File, Confidential File, White House Central Files, Truman Papers, Truman Library.
90 Harrington (2012:272–73); Carlyle (1952:153–54); Bohlen to George V. Allen, April 19, 1949, Folder: “Correspondence A–K,” Box 1, Bohlen Papers, RG 59, National Archives; Jessup to Acheson, April 12, 1949, Folder: “Jessup-Malik Conversations . . . ,” Box 304, RG 43, National Archives; State Department, “Statement on the Malik-Jessup Talks,” April 26, 1949, in Senate Committee on Foreign Relations (1959:57–59); Jessup (September 1972:392).
91 Specifically, those restrictions imposed since March 1, 1948.
92 Paris was designated the host city for the conference in accordance with France’s Council on Foreign Ministers rotation rights.
93 Jessup, memorandum of conversation, April 27, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 732–35; Jessup, statement, April 27, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 735–37; Jessup, memorandum of conversation, April 29, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 737–44; Acheson to the Embassy in the United Kingdom, April 30, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 744–46; Acheson, memorandum of conversation, May 2, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 748–49; Bevin to Acheson, undated [1949], FRUS, 1949, III: 749–50; Editorial Note in FRUS, 1949, III: 750–51.
94 Sutherland and Canwell (2007:142).
95 Harrington (2012:256–59); Tunner (1964:219–22).
96 Acheson press and radio news conference notes and statements, May 11, 1949, Folder: “January–June 1949,” Box 72, Press Conferences File, Secretary of State File, Acheson Papers, Truman Library; Harrington (2012:274).
97 With the Western Allies determined to build up precautionary stocks in Berlin, the airlift continued on until September. Daily tonnage in May and June surpassed 8,000; a daily target of 8,944 was set for July 1949 to June 1950, evidence of plans to sustain the airlift indefinitely. Harrington (2012:255, 257–58, 274); James Riddleberger to Acheson, May 12, 1949, 740.00119 Control (Germany)/5-1249, RG 59, National Archives.
98 New York Times (May 12, 1949).
99 Acheson press and radio news conference notes and statements, May 11, 1949, Folder: “January–June 1949,” Box 72, Press Conferences File, Secretary of State File, Acheson Papers, Truman Library.
100 Gaddis (2011:326); Kennan, memorandum, “United States Objectives with Respect to Russia,” PPS/38, August 18, 1948, in PPS Papers, 1947–1949, II: 372–411; Department of State Bulletin, 1949, XX: 662.
101 Kennan to Webb, May 26, 1949, Box 163, Foreign Affairs File, President’s Secretary’s Files, Truman Papers.
102 Clay to Tracy Voorhees, CC-8467, May 1, 1949, in Smith II (1974:1137–38); James Riddleberger to Acheson, May 16, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 772–73; Acheson to James Riddleberger, May 17, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 773–74; Acheson to James Riddleberger, May 17, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 775–76; George P. Hays to the Department of the Army, May 18, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 776–79; James Riddleberger to Acheson, May 19, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 779–87; McLaughlin (October 1, 1949).
103 Kennan to Marshall and Lovett, memorandum, “Policy Questions Concerning a Possible German Settlement,” August 12, 1948, in FRUS, 1948, II: 1287–97; Kennan, National War College lecture, “Contemporary Problems of Foreign Policy,” September 17, 1948, Folder 12, Box 299, Unpublished Works, Wri
tings, Kennan Papers, Mudd Library, Princeton University.
104 Isaacson and Thomas (1986 [2012]:290, 471); Kennan I (1967:257).
105 Smith (1990:527); Isaacson and Thomas (1986 [2012]:472).
106 James Riddleberger to Acheson, March 26, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 231.
107 Beisner (2006:138).
108 Murphy, memorandum of conversation, March 9, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 102–5.
109 Smith (1990:538).
110 Smith (1990:536).
111 Louis Johnson to Acheson, May 14, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 875–76; Bohlen (1973:285).
112 Reston (May 12, 1949); David K. E. Bruce to Acheson, May 14, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 878.
113 Bohlen (1973:285–86).
114 Acheson, off-the-record press conference, Folder: “January–June 1949,” Box 72, Press Conferences File, Secretary of State File, Acheson Papers, Truman Library: 2–7.
115 Bevin to Marshall, May 10, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 870–72; Kennan to Acheson, May 20, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 888–90.
116 Bohlen (1973:285–86); Isaacson and Thomas (1986 [2012]:472).
117 See, for example, Gaddis (2011:336).
118 Gaddis (2011:369–70).
119 Beisner (2006:117).
120 Isaacson and Thomas (1986 [2012]:474); Kennan I (1967:427).
121 New York Times (December 11, 1949).
122 Article 23 provided for extension to the eastern provinces upon reunification; this would take on great political significance in 1990.
123 Bavaria did not ratify it but allowed it to come into force.
124 Adenauer, Parliamentary Council Closing Speech, May 20, 1949, Bundesarchiv Koblenz Z12/33.
125 Office of German and Austrian Affairs, paper, “U.S. Position at the Council of Foreign Ministers,” May 15, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 898–99; Division of Research for Europe, paper, “The Soviet Approach at the Meeting of the C.F.M.,” May 17, 1949, in FRUS, 1949, III: 909–13.