The Marshall Plan

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The Marshall Plan Page 72

by Benn Steil


  Truman’s policies as viewed by, 50, 70, 93–94, 225, 262, 302, 306, 312, 320, 322–25, 329–31, 407

  Truman’s relationship with, 25, 32, 34–35, 40, 41, 42–43, 45, 63, 94–96, 125, 225, 262, 312, 334

  West German policies of, 298, 311, 312, 322, 326, 328, 332–34, 336

  Acheson, Mary, 328

  Adenauer, Konrad, 208, 287, 310, 321, 328, 329, 335–36, 361, 365, 378, 407

  Advisory Steering Committee on European Recovery Program, 190–91

  Afghanistan, 375, 397

  Africa, 31, 35

  agriculture, 99–100, 105, 141, 170, 185, 200, 215, 237, 243–44, 342, 367

  Air Force, U.S., 250, 258–59

  Albania, 148, 193, 228

  Albright, Madeleine, 384–85, 391, 392, 393, 394, 400

  Alexander I, Czar of Russia, 71

  Alfonso VI, King of León and Castile, 339

  Alliance for Germany, 382, 383

  Allied Control Council (ACC), 8, 59–60, 63, 64, 68, 128, 203, 270, 273, 331, 332, 379–80

  Allied High Commission, 336, 337, 370

  Alliluyeva, Svetlana, 182

  Alphand, Hervé, 158, 164, 168, 407

  Alvarez, Alberto, 309, 407

  American Federation of Labor (AFL), 200

  American Legion, 200

  “American Relations with the Soviet Union” (Clifford-Elsey Report), 41

  American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), 201

  American Society of Newspaper Editors, 347

  Anglo-Russian-Iranian Treaty (1942), 24

  Anglo-Soviet treaty (1942), 203

  Annan, Noel, 106

  anticommunism, 7–8, 65, 71, 92–93, 193, 211

  Arab Spring, 374

  Argentina, 295, 298

  Armenia, 23–24

  Army, U.S., 103, 241, 250, 271, 277, 324

  Army Corps of Engineers, U.S., 103

  Articles of Confederation, 214

  Asia, 31, 35, 42, 144, 373

  Asmus, Ron, 390, 394, 395, 396, 407, 577n

  Assad, Bashir al-, 392

  Assembly (West Berlin), 286, 290, 303

  Association Agreement, 397

  atomic bomb, 9–10, 12, 91, 105–6, 235, 282, 294, 321, 337

  Attlee, Clement, 7, 21, 73, 125, 126, 165, 302, 309–10, 314, 348, 360, 408, 411

  Augusta Chronicle, 45

  Augustine, Saint, 359

  Auriol, Vincent, 188, 408

  Austin, Warren, 50, 408

  Austria, 7, 35, 71, 106, 147, 191, 216, 221, 263, 331, 333, 342, 343, 344, 366

  Azerbaijan, 23

  B-29 bombers, 282

  Baker, James, III, 379, 380, 381–82, 398, 408

  balance of payments, 11, 161, 347–48, 369

  Balkans, 47, 78, 185, 386

  Ball, Joseph, 257

  Baltic states, 388, 401–2, 577n

  see also Estonia; Latvia; Lithuania

  banking sector, 221, 269, 285, 286, 348, 358

  Bank of Emission, 286

  Bank of France, 352

  Barbour, Wally, 337, 408

  Barkley, Alben, 34, 408

  Baruch, Bernard, 231, 408

  Basic Law (Grundgesetz), 329, 381

  Baylor University, 39–41

  BBC, 111, 114, 399

  Beckett, Samuel, 351

  Belarus, 386

  Belgium, 17–18, 47, 100, 147, 148, 153–54, 295, 318, 344, 367

  Bell, Elliott, 301, 408

  Belorussia, 73

  Bender, George H., 192, 408

  Benelux (Belgium-Netherlands-Luxembourg), 100, 148, 149, 150–53, 158–59, 173, 249, 251

  Beneš, Edvard, 140, 143, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 408

  Beria, Lavrentiy, 79, 408

  Berlin, East, 80, 275, 290, 309–10, 332, 457

  Berlin, Isaiah, 195

  Berlin, Occupied:

  blockades in, 254, 269–74, 281–85, 287, 290, 297, 298, 303, 307, 309, 310–14, 322, 324–25, 331–32, 334, 371

  division of, 332, 377, 393, 398, 401

  postwar conditions in, 15, 75, 89–90, 106, 107, 149, 151–52, 153, 177, 250, 253–55, 269–76, 281

  Stalin’s policies on, 253–54, 278, 282–83, 287–88, 291–92, 296–97, 303, 310–12, 323, 330–31, 334

  Truman’s policies on, 7–8, 276–78, 282–83, 287, 293–94, 312, 332–34, 379–80

  Berlin, West, 177, 273, 457

  Assembly of, 286, 290, 303

  Clay’s policies on, 302, 304, 307–8, 321–22, 327, 359–60

  Magistrat of, 273, 285, 286, 303

  strategic importance of, 254–55, 269, 273–74, 280–81, 285, 292, 302–10, 324, 332, 378

  Berlin Airlift, 254–55, 272–99, 301, 307, 310–14, 324–25, 328, 332–34, 358, 372–73, 561n

  Berlin Wall, 332, 377, 393, 398, 401

  Berman, Jakub, 185, 408

  Bevin, Ernest, 21, 59, 68, 111, 118, 121, 124–27, 129, 131, 132, 133, 134, 138, 147, 155, 173, 204–5, 231, 250, 252, 261, 267, 279, 280, 283, 294, 295, 307, 308, 311, 313–14, 322–23, 327, 330, 331, 333, 408

  Bidault, Georges, 58, 59, 69, 114–15, 118, 120, 121–23, 127, 129–30, 131–32, 134, 138, 147–50, 152, 164, 170, 171, 179, 205, 252, 261, 271, 282, 350, 351, 352, 374, 409

  Bierut, Bolesław, 136–37

  Big Three, 6, 20–21, 61–63, 170

  Bilbo, Theodore, 93, 409

  Bismarck, Otto von, 78, 213, 340

  Bissell, Richard, Jr., 195–96, 263, 315, 343, 345, 347, 364, 409

  Bizonal Economic Council, 105, 206, 207

  Bizonia, 60, 68, 69, 76, 105–6, 149, 151, 153, 203, 206, 207, 208, 249, 274–75

  black markets, 17–18, 274, 366–67

  Black Sea Fleet, Russian, 397–98

  Bloom, Sol, 34, 409

  Blücher, Franz, 335, 409

  Blum, Léon, 188, 409

  Blunt, Anthony, 409

  Bodrov, Mikhail, 138, 409

  Bogomolov, Alexander, 157, 409

  Bohlen, Charles (Chip), 4, 12, 29, 31–32, 41, 56, 70, 71, 72, 77, 108, 110, 113, 162, 206, 239, 247, 256, 278, 286, 303, 309, 323, 327, 328, 332–33, 341, 372, 409

  Bolshevik Party Central Committee, 72

  Bolsheviks, 57, 71, 72–73, 237, 238

  Bolshoi Theater, 10, 27, 71

  Bonn constitutional convention (1948), 289, 292, 322, 323, 330, 331

  Bonnet, Henri, 152, 409

  Bonn government, 322, 325, 329

  Bonn Parliamentary Council, 329

  Bosnia, 392

  Bradley, Omar, 279, 317, 321, 409

  Bramuglia, Juan Atilio, 297–98, 309, 409–10

  Bretton Woods Conference (1944), 8, 10, 11, 101, 108, 137, 153, 164, 167, 215, 221, 225–26, 362, 364, 370

  Bridges, Henry Styles, 34, 192, 410

  British Commonwealth, 125–26, 155, 158–59, 205

  British Empire, 3, 11, 21–27, 31–33, 37, 38, 46, 49, 155, 156, 161, 164, 165–66, 172, 189, 213

  British zone, 18, 62, 65, 68, 208, 360–61

  Brook, William Arthur Darville, 282, 410

  Brookings Institution, 199

  Brown, Clarence, 192, 410

  Brown, Winthrop, 163, 410

  Bruce, David, 351, 410

  Bruins, John, 243, 410

  Brussels Treaty (1948), 251–52, 253

  Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 410, 576n

  budget deficits, 61, 90, 220, 344, 349, 351, 354, 366, 446

  Bukharin, Nikolai, 72–73, 410

  Bulgaria, 7, 78–79, 126, 128, 141, 142, 148, 184, 185, 228, 306, 315, 372, 400, 401, 529n

  Bundestag, 310, 335–36, 378

  Bureau of Reconversion Priorities, U.S., 225

  Burgess, Guy, 127, 250, 410

  Burma, 21

  Bush, George H. W., 379, 381–82, 387

  Byrnes, James (Jimmy), 6, 7, 27, 35, 40, 56, 58, 60, 63, 67, 78, 104, 133, 202–3, 207, 242, 275, 410

  C-47 transport planes, 40, 277

  Cadogan, Alexander, 323
/>   Caffery, Jefferson, 118, 134, 137, 149, 151, 159, 162, 166, 171, 172, 186, 244, 247, 263, 309, 350–51, 372, 410

  Cairncross, Alec, 63, 410

  calorie consumption, 18, 366–67

  Canada, 253, 295, 318, 319

  capital equipment, 62, 251, 357, 361, 364, 370, 572n

  capitalism, x, 10, 16–17, 57, 60, 73, 82, 100, 123, 126, 132, 138, 179, 186, 187–88, 209, 239, 275, 330–31, 335, 359, 386, 393, 520n

  capital losses, 112, 343, 344

  Carter, Marshall (Pat), 59, 110, 410

  cartohypnosis, 43

  Catherine II (“the Great”), Empress of Russia, 71

  Catholic Church, 181

  Catroux, Georges, 69, 203, 410

  Caucasus Mountains, 23, 43

  Celler, Emanuel, 20, 411

  Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 12, 186, 195, 207, 228, 241, 250, 258, 262, 286, 287, 312, 315–16, 371

  Central Intelligence Group, 371

  Chamber of Commerce, U.S., 200, 223–24, 314, 369–70

  Changes in Capitalist Economy Following World War II, The (Varga), 520n

  Chataigneau, Yves, 283–84, 411

  Chechnya, 391

  Chekhov, Anton, 28

  Chernyshevsky, Nikolai, 83, 411

  chess, 339–40, 566n

  Chiang Kai-shek, 56–57, 269, 411

  Chicago Tribune, 294, 301

  China, 2, 33, 43, 49, 56, 58, 88, 175, 216, 221, 260, 269, 295, 374, 380, 386

  “Chinese Marshall Plan,” 374

  Christian Democrat Party (MRP), 122, 188, 262, 305, 349, 350, 354

  Christian Democrat Union (CDU), 208, 228, 287, 290, 304, 310, 335

  Christianity, 200

  Christian Social Union (CSU), 228, 335

  Christopher, Warren, 388–89

  Chuikov, Vasily, 312, 328, 411

  Churchill, Winston S., 3, 5, 10, 15, 47, 58, 60, 61–62, 69, 73, 75, 82, 93, 124, 155, 212, 241, 402, 411

  City Council (West Berlin), 273

  Clarke, Richard (Otto), 154, 263

  Clausewitz, Carl von, 133, 262

  Clay, Lucius D.:

  armed convoys supported by, 279–80, 282

  background of, 103–4, 411

  Berlin Airlift proposed by, 272–76, 278, 287, 289–90, 292, 324

  currency reform supported by, 270–72, 285, 307–8, 360–61

  French authorities as viewed by, 66–68, 82, 107, 150, 152–53, 271–72, 273, 307–8, 321–22

  German reindustrialization and, 82, 105–7, 151, 203, 357, 359–61

  Kennan compared with, 107, 250, 255–56, 326–27

  “localitis” of, 107, 321–22

  Marshall’s policies as viewed by, 70, 103–4, 105, 150–53, 206–7, 287, 325, 372

  Marshall’s relationship with, 105, 107–8, 149–52, 206–7, 284–85, 303–4

  as military governor, 64–65, 68, 89, 103–7, 134, 151–52, 203, 206–7, 270–75, 278, 287, 288, 289–90, 302, 307–8, 321–25, 334, 357, 359–60, 367, 372

  Molotov as viewed by, 205–6, 286, 287, 288

  postwar reconstruction supported by, 9, 64–68, 82, 105–7, 151, 270–75, 334, 359–61, 367

  resignation and retirement of, 66–67, 150, 324–25, 334

  Soviet attitude as viewed by, 64–68, 70, 107, 149, 205–6, 250, 255–56, 276, 278–80, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 307–8, 325, 327, 359–60

  Truman’s policies as viewed by, 64–68, 70, 105–7, 150, 247, 270–75, 282, 324–25, 334

  West Berlin policies of, 302, 304, 307–8, 321–22, 327, 359–60

  Clayton, Sue, 51

  Clayton, William:

  Acheson compared with, 225, 226, 262, 341

  background of, 50–51, 226, 262, 411

  British and French interests as seen by, 121, 128, 150, 164, 170

  European economic recovery as viewed by, 20, 51–52, 63, 87, 99–101, 108, 151, 154, 158–59, 162, 164, 165–66, 169, 170, 174, 226, 257, 346, 353, 361, 367

  Marshall Plan contribution of, 99–101, 103, 108, 110, 113, 121, 128, 151, 154, 157–62, 164, 165, 166–74, 243, 257, 341, 345, 346, 353, 372

  Marshall’s relationship with, 99–100, 159, 166–74, 243

  in Paris talks, 121, 128, 150–52, 156–74

  postwar policy developed by, 9, 20, 52, 63, 108, 121, 154, 157–60, 199, 226

  Truman’s relationship with, 39, 52, 225, 226, 262

  as undersecretary of state for economic affairs, 20, 40, 51, 87, 160–63, 199, 361, 367

  Clementis, Vladimír, 138, 143, 241, 411

  Cleveland, Harlan, 355, 411

  Cleveland, Miss., 93–96

  Clifford, Clark, 41, 43–44, 111, 219, 220, 221, 225, 411–12

  Clinton, Bill, 387, 389–90, 393, 394, 395, 412

  Clinton, Hillary, 374, 412

  coal supplies, 6, 7, 67, 70, 103, 125, 130, 137, 150, 152, 153, 159, 164, 167, 169, 171, 183, 187, 197, 274, 277–78, 279, 310, 322, 323, 345, 353, 357, 367

  Cohen, Benjamin, 108, 412

  Cold War, 10, 28, 37, 115, 118, 187, 297, 315–16, 340–41, 356, 385

  Cold War, The (Lippmann), 187

  Colombia, 295

  Combettes (sculptor), 147

  Combined Airlift Task Force, 302

  Combined Chiefs of Staff, U.S., 270

  Cominform (Communist Information Bureau), 180, 182, 184, 185–86, 235–36, 257, 349, 371

  Comintern (Communist International), 184

  Committee for Economic Development (CED), 199, 200

  Committee for the Marshall Plan to Aid European Recovery (Marshall Plan Committee), 199

  Committee of European Economic Co-operation (CEEC), 148, 156–57, 159, 160, 162, 172, 305

  Committees of Action, 238

  Common Market, 153, 188, 322

  communism, 7–8, 65, 71, 92–93, 180–89, 191, 193–94, 210, 211, 227–28, 315, 353

  Communist Party Central Committee (Soviet Union), 46, 57–58, 74, 119, 121, 127–28, 130, 135, 163, 175, 180, 181, 211, 227–28, 230, 293, 303, 380

  Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), 46, 57–58, 74, 119, 121, 127–28, 130, 135, 163, 175, 180, 181, 211, 227–28, 230, 293, 303, 380

  Communist Party of the U.S.A. (CPUSA), 200, 267

  concentration camps, 106

  Congress, U.S., 2, 9, 33–39, 42, 43, 50, 57, 70, 97, 161, 169–70, 176, 193–98, 201, 207, 211–17, 221, 224–33, 247–49, 251, 256–61, 301–2, 309, 317–20, 321, 346

  Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), 200

  Congress of Vienna, The (Nicolson), 71

  Connally, Tom, 34, 35, 319, 412

  Constitution, U.S., 214, 320

  constitutional convention (1948), 289, 292, 322, 323, 330, 331

  consumer spending, 95, 151, 158, 166, 186–97

  containment strategy, 29–32, 33, 37, 41, 255–56, 316, 325–28, 340, 369, 373, 375, 386, 389–90, 403

  Conversations with Stalin (Djilas), 73–74

  Coolidge, Calvin, 88

  Cortesi, Arnaldo, 189, 412

  Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon), 306

  Council of Economic Advisers (CEA), 86

  Council of Foreign Ministers (CFM), 8, 10, 77, 126, 153, 254, 296, 297–98, 311, 313, 322–25, 329–34

  Council on Foreign and Defense Policy, 388

  Council on Foreign Relations (CFR), 199

  counter-blockades, 277, 310–14

  counterpart funds, 227, 347–48, 351–54, 451–53

  covert operations, 41, 262, 315–16

  Cox, Edward E., 251, 412

  credit support, 11, 76–77, 106–7, 108, 121, 154, 183, 220, 221, 223, 227, 244, 249, 263, 305, 358–59, 362, 363

  Crimea, 397–400

  Crimean War, 11, 24

  Cripps, Stafford, 156, 165, 306, 412

  “currency blockade,” 382

  currency convertibility, 22, 161–62, 165, 168, 269–70, 364–65, 382–83

  “currency curtain,” 153–54

  currency devaluation, 11, 161–62,
167, 221, 345, 363, 370

  currency reform, 153–55, 159, 161, 220, 255, 270–72, 281, 285, 304, 307–8, 355, 358, 360–61, 367

  customs barriers, 66, 100–101

  customs union, 159, 162, 165, 173–74, 379

  see also Benelux

  Czech government-in-exile, 143

  Czechoslovakia, 16, 17, 119, 128, 130–31, 132, 135, 137–45, 148, 184, 185, 227, 228, 235–44, 250, 251, 252, 253, 257, 259, 265, 266, 267, 306, 315, 340, 371, 372, 384, 394, 523n

  Czech Republic, 385, 391, 400, 401

  Dalton, Hugh, 21, 125, 412

  Dashkevich, Yuri, 298

  Davies, Joseph, 12, 412

  Dawes Plan (1924), 321, 358

  Dayton, Leon, 355

  Deaton, Angus, 375, 412

  debt, national, 21, 61, 161–62, 358–59, 362, 446–49, 570n

  Declaration of Liberated Europe, 4

  Defense Department, U.S., 260

  De Gasperi, Alcide, 188–89, 261, 353–54, 412, 568n

  de Gaulle, Charles, 47, 122, 164, 185–86, 187, 188, 295, 350–51, 412

  deindustrialization, 6, 8–9, 66, 81–82, 150–51, 152

  Delta State Teachers College, 93–96

  demilitarization, 75, 76, 281, 316

  democracy, 4, 8, 36, 37, 60, 105, 119, 126, 142, 180, 182, 192, 194, 197, 206, 229, 242–44, 256, 258, 259, 282, 335, 336, 359, 369, 392, 393, 395, 396, 400

  Democratic Party, U.S., 5, 34, 50, 51, 56, 88, 194–95, 199, 215–16, 219–20, 226, 259, 260, 301–2, 317–18

  de-Nazification, 80–81, 106, 161

  Denmark, 147, 252, 318, 343

  Depreux, Édouard, 187, 413

  deutschmark (DM), 22, 161–62, 165, 168, 269–76, 278, 279, 283–85, 286, 287, 288, 289, 292, 307–8, 311, 312, 325, 330, 358, 360–65, 382–84

  Devil’s General, The (Zuckmayer), 106

  Dewey, Thomas E., 213, 219–20, 295, 301, 413

  dictatorships, 29, 61, 71, 248, 503n–4n

  Djilas, Milovan, 73–74, 130, 182, 289, 413

  Doctor Faustus (Mann), 106

  Dodd, Norris, 201, 413

  dollar diplomacy, 125, 154, 155, 159–60, 162, 164, 176–77, 208–9, 243, 306, 350

  “dollar gap,” 200, 343

  “dollar imperialism,” 208–9, 243, 306

  dollar reserves, 21, 22, 94, 95, 107, 154, 155, 161, 162, 165, 167, 170, 173, 186, 216, 220, 224, 227, 314, 344, 345, 347–48, 357, 363–64, 368, 370

  dollar standard, 167–68, 270

  domino theory, 42, 44, 144, 261

  Dostoyevsky, Fyodor, 28

  Douglas, Lewis, 89–90, 152, 159, 166, 172, 214, 230, 247, 249, 252, 280–81, 292, 311, 329, 372, 413, 542n

  Draper, William, Jr., 206, 282, 285, 289–90, 296, 413

  Drtina, Prokop, 139, 140, 141, 144, 236, 240, 413

  Dublin summit, 383

 

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