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The Marshall Plan

Page 73

by Benn Steil

Duclos, Jacques, 181–82, 186, 413

  Dulles, Allen, 199, 241, 413

  Dulles, John Foster, 58, 70, 82, 101, 187, 199, 230, 295, 413

  Dunn, James, 186, 413, 568n

  Durbrow, Elbridge, 268, 413

  Eady, Wilfred, 63, 413

  Earle, Edward Mead, 250–51, 413–14

  Eaton, Charles, 34, 192–93, 414

  Ebert, Friedrich (Fritz), 303, 414

  Eccles, Marriner, 221, 414

  Echols, Oliver, 65, 414

  Economic Cooperation Act (1948), 247–48, 260, 306

  see also Marshall Plan

  Economic Cooperation Administration (ECA), 225, 262–63, 305, 315, 345–48, 351–56, 369, 568n–69n

  Economic Council (Wirtschaftsrat), 208–9

  economic depressions, 159, 161

  economies of scale, 100–101

  Economist, 101, 227, 261

  Eden, Anthony, 3, 74, 79, 125, 414

  Egypt, 24

  Einaudi, Luigi, 350

  Einstein, Albert, 356

  Eisenhower, Dwight D., 33, 42, 56, 104, 241, 266, 293, 414, 425

  elections, Soviet, 10, 27, 29

  elections, U.S., 213, 219–20, 258, 282, 295, 301–2, 317, 413

  elections, West Germany, 79–80, 236–37, 240, 254, 303–4, 335–37, 379, 381, 382

  electricity, 324, 344

  Elsey, George, 41, 42, 43–44, 220, 414

  Erdoğan, Recep Tayyip, 392, 395, 414

  Erhard, Ludwig, 274–75, 335, 361, 365, 414

  Ertegün, Mehmet Münir, 24

  espionage, 79, 241, 268–69, 277, 279, 282, 283, 284, 298, 319

  Estonia, 73, 400, 401

  Ethridge, Mark, 26, 414

  Eurocommunism, 180–89, 191, 193–94, 210, 227–28, 315, 353

  Europe, Eastern:

  Cominform programs for, 180, 182, 184, 185–86, 235–36, 257, 349, 371

  Iron Curtain division of, 10, 83, 102, 109, 121, 189, 194, 212, 259, 378, 411

  Marshall Plan rejected by, 135–45, 146, 235–45

  Soviet domination of, 23, 70, 80–81, 82, 91, 108, 123, 138, 236–37, 242–44, 250–51, 259, 278, 324, 370–72, 390

  Stalin’s policies on, 23, 70, 79, 80–81, 82, 91, 108, 123, 138, 236–37, 242–44, 250–51, 259, 278, 324, 335–36, 337, 370–72, 390

  Warsaw Pact countries in, 275, 277, 379, 383–84, 387, 392, 393, 399

  Europe, Western:

  banking sector in, 221, 269, 285, 286, 348, 358

  capitalism in, x, 10, 16–17, 57, 60, 73, 82, 100, 123, 126, 132, 138, 179, 186, 187–88, 209, 239, 275, 330–31, 335, 359, 386, 393, 520n

  communist parties in, 19–20, 180–89, 191, 193–94, 210, 227–28, 315, 353

  consumer spending in, 95, 151, 158, 166, 186–97

  credit support in, 11, 76–77, 106–7, 108, 121, 154, 362

  currency reform in, 153–55, 159, 161, 220, 255, 270–72, 281, 285, 304, 307–8, 355, 358, 360–61, 367

  customs barriers in, 66, 100–101

  customs union for, 159, 162, 165, 173–74, 379; see also Benelux

  deficits in, 21, 61, 161–62, 358–59, 362, 446–49, 570n

  democracy in, 4, 8, 36, 37, 60, 105, 119, 126, 142, 180, 182, 192, 194, 197, 206, 229, 242–44, 256, 258, 259, 282, 335, 336, 359, 369, 392, 393, 395, 396, 400

  dictatorships in, 29, 61, 71, 248, 503n–4n

  dollar reserves of, 21, 22, 94, 95, 107, 154, 155, 161, 162, 165, 167, 170, 173, 186, 216, 220, 224, 227, 314, 344, 345, 347–48, 357, 363–64, 368, 370

  exports of, 62, 67, 86, 105, 106–7, 153–54, 161, 168, 216, 221, 257, 263, 309, 331–32, 363–64, 369–70

  food supplies in, 7, 64, 67, 68, 94, 106, 159, 161, 167, 190, 263, 272, 274, 279, 302, 307, 310, 342, 346, 353, 359, 361, 366–67, 369

  foreign exchange controls for, 68, 140, 154, 165, 167, 172, 270–71, 344–45

  free markets in, ix, 88, 100–101, 106–7, 158, 167–68, 185–97, 243, 330, 331–47, 348, 360, 369, 374, 402

  gold reserves of, ix, 21, 26, 94, 95, 101, 154, 161, 216, 227, 344, 363

  gross domestic product (GDP) of, 81, 86, 197, 342, 343, 348, 354, 358, 446–49

  gross national product (GNP) of, 342, 351–52, 358

  imports of, 62–63, 64, 81, 95, 153–54, 161, 216, 220, 314, 344, 355, 364, 369–70

  Iron Curtain division and, 10, 83, 102, 109, 121, 189, 194, 212, 259, 378, 411

  living standards in, 61, 65, 107, 162, 166, 168, 174, 221, 341, 359, 368

  maps of, 42–43, 101, 177, 296, 456–60

  Marshall Plan supported by, 118–19, 122, 126–28, 130, 132–33, 145, 146–60, 176, 189–91, 202–10, 214, 227–28, 305–7, 313–14, 326–28, 331–32, 352–54, 362–65

  military security for, x, 33–34, 44, 150, 280, 302, 318–22, 325, 327, 335, 356, 369, 371, 373, 375, 379, 380–84, 385, 387–403, 415, 574n, 577n

  nationalism in, 79, 81, 181, 195, 310, 326, 336, 387, 400

  political map (1943) for, 458

  political map (1949) for, 459

  price controls in, 168, 220, 221, 270, 307, 346, 361

  production in, 77, 81–82, 94–95, 163, 168–69, 174, 366

  protectionism in, 51, 66, 88, 100–101, 155–56, 158–59, 167–68, 172, 216, 223, 306, 363–65, 369

  revolutionary violence in, 186–89

  tariffs in, 51, 100, 158–59, 165, 223, 314, 401

  totalitarianism in, 29, 61, 71, 89, 190–91, 212, 214, 248, 276, 503n–4n

  trade deficits in, 67–68, 70, 140, 141, 154, 173, 221, 307, 358, 362–65, 369–70

  European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), 153, 322

  European Community (EC), 381, 387

  European Economic Commission, 118, 174

  European Economic Community (Common Market), 153, 188, 322

  “European Group,” 227

  European Payments Union (EPU), 154–55, 348, 362, 363, 364, 366, 572n

  European Recovery Program (ERP), see Marshall Plan

  European Union (EU), x, 322, 373, 375, 380–81, 384, 391, 393, 395–96, 401–3, 577n

  Export-Import Bank, U.S., 244, 568n–69n

  exports, 62, 67, 86, 105, 106–7, 153–54, 161, 168, 216, 221, 257, 263, 309, 331–32, 363–64, 369–70

  Extraordinary Peoples’ Courts, 16

  factories, 94–95

  Falin, Valentin, 380–81

  Farewell Address (Washington), 1, 3, 13, 27, 43, 97, 320

  fascism, 2, 16, 80, 181, 184, 350

  Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), 232

  federalization, 80, 131, 169, 249

  Federal Reserve System, 220, 221

  Feierabend, Ladislav, 143, 414

  Ferguson, Homer, 192, 415

  Fifteen Weeks, The (Jones), 32, 418

  fifth columns, 371

  Finland, 2–3, 7, 19, 126, 148, 244–45, 251, 252, 395

  first-charge principle, 64, 67

  food supplies, 7, 64, 67, 68, 94, 106, 159, 161, 167, 190, 263, 272, 274, 279, 302, 307, 310, 342, 346, 353, 359, 361, 366–67, 369

  see also starvation

  Foreign Affairs, 30–32, 43, 90–91, 198–99, 255–56, 326, 328, 395

  Foreign Assistance Act (1948), 260, 568n–69n

  see also Marshall Plan

  “foreign entanglements,” 1, 3, 13, 27, 43, 97, 320

  foreign exchange controls, 68, 140, 154, 165, 167, 172, 270–71, 344–45

  Foreign Office, British, 125, 127, 158, 230

  Foreign Policy Concept (FPC), 394–95, 401

  foreign trade, 20, 22, 88, 124, 135, 149, 153–55, 269–70, 313, 325, 368

  Forrestal, James, 30, 33, 87, 92, 214, 230, 316–17, 415

  Four Power (Quadripartite) agreement, 95, 208, 273, 286, 288, 290–91, 308, 310, 323, 329–33, 361, 379–80

  Fourteen Points, 88

  France, 2, 10, 16, 18–20, 35, 47, 51, 61, 66–69, 94, 100, 101, 106, 108, 118, 121–23, 129, 131–33, 136, 140, 141, 147–53, 155, 161–64, 170, 175, 176, 181–91, 201, 203, 210, 211, 216, 221, 227,
230, 240, 249–55, 263, 295, 315, 318, 320, 322, 336, 342–56, 360–68, 374, 386, 403

  Franco, Francisco, 148, 260

  François-Poncet, André, 335–36, 415

  Frankfurt, 106, 206, 272

  Franklin, Benjamin, 340, 566n

  Franks, Oliver, 148, 155, 156, 159, 162, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 314, 415

  Free Democratic Party (FDP), 304, 335

  free markets, ix, 88, 100–101, 106–7, 158, 167–68, 185–97, 243, 330, 331–47, 348, 360, 369, 374, 402

  French Communist Party, 66, 108, 121, 130, 170, 181–82, 185–88, 216–17, 230, 271, 349–51, 353, 355–56

  French zone, 65, 66–67, 68, 69, 82, 249, 321, 542n

  Friedensburg, Ferdinand, 290, 310, 415

  Gaddis, John Lewis, 375, 415

  Gaidar, Yegor, 400, 415

  Ganeval, Jean, 274, 279, 415

  Gaullism, 64, 122, 271, 350–51, 353, 355–56

  General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 172, 370

  Geneva talks, 165–66

  Genscher, Hans-Dietrich, 378, 415

  George VI, King of England, 97, 124, 125

  Georgia, 23–24, 72, 396–97, 398, 399, 402

  Gerashchenko, Vladimir, 157, 194, 415

  German Communist Party (Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands) (KPD), 75–76, 79, 80, 204

  Germany, East:

  communist control of, 75–76, 79, 80, 204

  as German Democratic Republic (GDR), 336–37

  postwar conditions in, 7–8

  Soviet troops in, 237, 382–84

  Stalin’s policies on, 79, 324, 335–36, 337, 372

  Volksrat (People’s Council) of, 336

  see also Berlin, East

  Germany, Nazi, 18, 27, 34, 39, 47, 60, 73, 79, 80–81, 188, 215, 238, 242, 270, 276, 278, 358, 386

  Germany, Occupied:

  Bizonia area in, 60, 68, 69, 76, 105–6, 149, 151, 153, 203, 206, 207, 208, 249, 274–75

  British zone of, 18, 62, 65, 68, 208, 360–61

  currency convertibility in, 22, 161–62, 165, 168, 269–70, 364–65, 382–83

  deindustrialization of, 6, 8–9, 66, 81–82, 150–51, 152

  demilitarization of, 75, 76, 281, 316

  de-Nazification of, 80–81, 106, 161

  federalization of, 80, 131, 169, 249

  Four Power agreement for, 95, 208, 273, 286, 288, 290–91, 308, 310, 323, 329–33, 361, 379–80

  French zone of, 65, 66–67, 68, 69, 82, 249, 321, 542n

  goods and services in, 95, 154, 158, 159, 325, 331–32, 342, 346, 349, 357, 361, 364, 370, 382

  humanitarian crisis in, 87, 94–96, 189–90, 227, 277

  industrial production of, 62, 68, 82, 105–7, 149, 151, 159, 160–62, 167, 176–84, 187, 189–90, 203, 211, 249, 255, 303, 304, 329–30, 341–42, 357, 359–61, 367, 374

  map of, 457

  military governors of, 64–65, 68, 89, 103–7, 134, 151–52, 203, 206–7, 270–75, 278, 282, 287–90, 302, 307–8, 321–25, 334, 357, 359–60, 367, 372

  Morgenthau Plan for, 6, 8–9, 89, 90, 96, 99, 104–5, 115, 149, 151, 183, 209, 225–26, 357, 424

  occupation zones in, 4, 63–64, 70, 457; see also specific zones

  pastoralization of, x, 66, 89, 115, 149, 161

  reparations policy for, 4, 6–7, 60–71, 75–79, 85, 107, 109, 123, 128, 131, 176, 203–6, 249, 266, 276, 281, 310, 313, 325, 330, 331, 337, 356–58, 361, 362, 368

  reunification of, 209, 326, 377–78, 379, 381, 382, 419, 427, 430, 557, 562, 570n

  Rhine region of, 82, 103, 252

  Saar region of, 62, 66–67, 69, 150, 322, 356

  Soviet zone of, 20, 79–81, 228, 270, 271, 272, 275, 280, 281–82, 285, 329–30, 336

  starvation in, 15, 18, 89, 95, 99–100, 105, 170, 208–9, 244, 245, 275, 358

  trade in, 20, 22, 88, 124, 135, 149, 153–55, 269–70, 313, 325, 368

  U.S. zone of, 64–65, 68, 89–90, 104, 209, 270, 286, 308, 329–30, 360–61

  war damage in, 342, 344, 357

  winter conditions in (1947), 346, 569n–70n

  Germany, West:

  Acheson’s policies on, 298, 311, 312, 322, 326, 328, 332–34, 336

  Basic Law (Grundgesetz) in, 329, 381

  Bonn constitutional convention (1948) for, 289, 292, 322, 323, 330, 331

  Bonn government of, 322, 325, 329

  currency of (deutschmark) (DM), 22, 161–62, 165, 168, 269–76, 278, 279, 283–85, 286, 287, 288, 289, 292, 307–8, 311, 312, 325, 330, 358, 360–65, 382–84

  elections in, 79–80, 236–37, 240, 254, 303–4, 335–37, 379, 381, 382

  reconstruction of, 51, 118–19, 140–41, 149–50, 206–10, 313–14, 336, 357–62, 378–79

  see also Berlin, West

  Geschke, Ottomar, 303, 415

  Gibbon, Edward, 328

  Gilbert, Charles, 200, 415

  gold reserves, ix, 21, 26, 94, 95, 101, 154, 161, 216, 227, 344, 363

  Gomułka, Władysław, 185, 415

  goods and services, 95, 154, 158, 159, 325, 331–32, 342, 346, 349, 357, 361, 364, 370, 382

  Gorbachev, Mikhail, 378, 379, 381–82, 383, 387, 388, 391, 392, 397, 415

  Gore, Al, 374, 416

  Gottwald, Klement, 138, 139, 142, 143, 237, 238–39, 240, 242, 244, 266, 416

  Grachev, Pavel, 387, 416

  grain supplies, 170, 237, 243–44, 298, 353

  Grand Alliance, 29

  Grand Strategy, 403–4

  Great Britain, 2, 3, 10, 11, 19–26, 35–39, 47, 51, 62, 63, 74, 76, 81, 85, 89, 94, 97, 99, 101, 106, 123–32, 136, 140, 149, 155, 159, 161–73, 190, 222, 227, 235, 249, 251, 255, 267, 282, 307, 345, 348, 349, 360, 363, 367, 368, 386, 403

  Great Depression, 51

  Great Powers, 141, 175–76

  Greece, 16, 18–19, 21, 22, 26, 31–39, 40, 42, 44–52, 87, 94, 147, 156–57, 160, 166, 175, 185, 213, 245, 259–60, 266, 269, 342, 343, 374, 509n

  Griffis, Stanton, 137, 416

  Gromyko, Andrei, 10, 49, 125, 267–69, 333, 400, 416

  gross domestic product (GDP), 81, 86, 197, 342, 343, 348, 354, 358, 446–49

  gross national product (GNP), 342, 351–52, 358

  Grotewohl, Otto, 80, 336–37, 416

  Grundgesetz (Basic Law), 329, 381

  guerrilla movements, 48

  Haffner, Sebastian, 175, 416

  Hála, František, 144, 416

  Hall, Alvin, 270, 416

  Halle, Louis, Jr., 321, 386, 416

  Halleck, Charles, 192, 416

  Halvorsen, Gail, 302, 416

  Hamilton, Alexander, 27

  Harding, Warren G., 88

  Harriman, W. Averell, 19, 28–29, 63, 75, 76–77, 88, 91, 133, 194–98, 214, 226, 247, 251, 263, 314–15, 340–41, 416

  Harriman Committee (President’s Committee on Foreign Aid), 194–98, 222–23, 263, 343, 345, 416, 532n

  Harvard University, 109–10, 111, 160, 194, 199, 212, 261, 335, 344, 353, 384, 400, 441–44

  Hawkins, Harry, 166, 416–17

  Hay, John, 88, 417

  Hazlitt, Henry, 216, 345

  hegemony, 46, 90–93, 175–76, 337

  Helmstedt, 273, 324

  Henderson, Loy, 33, 36, 417

  Herman, Stewart, Jr., 200, 417

  Herter, Christian, 190, 193, 194, 417

  Herter Committee, 193–94, 197, 198, 224

  Hessian referendum (1947), 360

  Hickerson, John, 160, 241, 252–53, 260, 320, 351, 417

  Hinton, Harold, 189, 417

  Hiroshima bombing (1945), 9–10, 282

  Hirschfeld, H. M. H., 153–54

  Hitler, Adolf, 5, 17, 19, 23, 26, 58, 71, 73, 85, 106, 137–38, 228, 239, 241, 252, 317, 386

  Hobbes, Thomas, 17

  Hoffman, Clare, 258, 417

  Hoffman, Paul, 133, 195, 196, 197, 198, 262–63, 305–6, 315, 335, 347, 372, 417

  Holbrooke, Richard, 393, 394, 398–99, 417

  Holocaust, 106

  Hoover, Herbert, 81–82, 215, 258, 417<
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  Hopkins, Harry, 5, 18–19, 77, 417

  Hottelet, Richard, 65, 418

  Houdek, Vladimír, 267, 268–69, 418

  House of Commons, British, 125

  House of Representatives, U.S., 9, 34, 38, 39, 43, 169–70, 198, 201, 211–12, 213, 221, 225, 226, 228–30, 251, 260, 309, 321

  Foreign Affairs Committee of, 38, 198, 211–12, 225, 229–30, 321

  Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) of, 9

  housing, 17, 159–60, 352, 357

  Hugo, Victor, 72

  Hull, Cordell, 8, 51, 88, 418

  humanitarian crisis, 87, 94–96, 189–90, 227, 277

  Humelsine, Carl, 109–10, 418

  Hungary, 7, 16, 18, 19, 35, 71, 126, 128, 142, 148, 184, 228, 306, 384, 385, 391, 393, 396, 400, 529n–30n

  hunger, 15, 18, 89, 95, 99–100, 105, 170, 208–9, 244, 245, 275, 358

  Iceland, 147, 318, 386

  Ignatiev, D., 276–77

  imperialism, 10, 49, 119–20, 175–76, 180, 182–83, 201, 228, 237, 239

  imports, 62–63, 64, 81, 95, 153–54, 161, 216, 220, 314, 344, 355, 364, 369–70

  India, 21, 26, 386

  industrial production, 62, 68, 82, 105–7, 149, 151, 159, 160–62, 167, 176–84, 187, 189–90, 203, 211, 249, 255, 303, 304, 329–30, 341–42, 357, 359–61, 367, 374

  inflation, 18, 81, 90, 94, 100, 154, 195, 215, 216, 220, 221, 222, 224, 230, 271, 342, 346, 348, 349, 352, 353, 362, 366, 446–49, 567n

  “insistent wish,” Stalin’s, 284, 286, 287–88, 311, 313

  intelligence operations, 79, 241, 268–69, 277, 279, 282, 283, 284, 298, 319

  interest rates, 216, 353

  International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), 39, 52, 167, 174, 197

  International Conference of Socialist Parties (1948), 227–28

  International Monetary Fund (IMF), ix, 2, 8, 11, 99, 153, 154, 162, 167, 200, 221, 341, 370, 569n

  International Trade Organization (ITO), 2, 156, 158, 159, 163, 167

  International Workers’ Olympiad (1937), 180

  Inverchapel, Lord (Archibald Clark Kerr), 22, 32, 418

  Iran, 11, 23, 24, 31–32, 35, 175, 375

  Iraq, 375, 397

  Ireland, 147, 318, 383

  Iron Curtain division, 10, 83, 102, 109, 121, 189, 194, 212, 259, 378, 411

  isolationism, 2, 31, 36, 45, 49, 97, 189, 223, 247, 320–21, 371

  Italian Communist Party, 108, 181, 182, 186, 187, 188–89, 216–17, 227, 261–62, 263, 349, 350, 356, 367–68

  Italy, 16, 20, 35, 94, 103, 108, 126, 151, 153, 155, 158, 159, 161, 175, 181, 185, 194, 216, 221, 228, 258, 259, 261–62, 263, 305, 342, 344, 349, 353–55, 356, 359, 366, 367, 568n

  Ivashov, Leonid, 390, 418

 

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