75.Ibid., p. 37.
76.World Bank, World Development Indicators.
77.World Bank, “Transitional Support Strategy for the Republic of Angola,” March 4, 2003, http://www.worldbank.org/ao/reports/2003_Angola_tss.pdf.
78.IMF, “Consultation on Angola,” 2003, Article IV, p.9.
79.http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2003/27721.htm.
80.Economist Intelligence Unit, “Country Profile 2003: Democratic Republic of the Congo.”
81.http://www.hrw.org/press/2003/01/libya0117.htm.
82.UN Millennium Project, “Investing in Development: A Practical Plan to Achieve the Millennium Development Goals,” January 2005.
83.http://www.underreported.com/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file= article&sid=1241.
84.Todd Moss and Arvind Subramanian, “After the Big Push? Fiscal and Institutional Implications of Large Aid Increases,” Center for Global Development, August 2005.
85.http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3724520.stm.
86.http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4497915.stm.
87.Liner notes from The Best Best of Fela Kuti, MCA Records.
CHAPTER 5. THE RICH HAVE MARKETS, THE POOR HAVE BUREAUCRATS
1.World Bank, “Assessing Aid,” 1998.
2.World Bank, Africa Development Indicators, 2002.
3.A brilliant review of the feedback problem and principal-agent theory in foreign aid is Bertin Martens, Uwe Mummert, Peter Murrell, and Paul Seabright, The Institutional Economics of Foreign Aid, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
4.For a review, see Avinash Dixit, The Making of Eccentric Policy: A Transaction Cost Politics Perspective, Cambridge, MIT Press, 1996.
5.http://www.murphys-laws.com/murphy/murphy-laws.html.
6.World Bank, “The World Bank in Action: Stories of Development,” Washington, D.C., 2002.
7.Anirudh Krishna with Urban Jonsson and Wilbald Lorri, “The Iringa Nutrition Project: Child Survival and Development in Tanzania,” in Anirudh Krishna, Norman Uphoff, and Milton J. Esman, Reasons for Hope: Instructive Experiences in Rural Development, West Hartford, Conn.: Kumarian Press, 1997. See also Teresa A. Calderon, “Nutrition Education Training of Health Workers and Other Field Staff to Support Chronically Deprived Communities,” Public Health Nutrition no. 6a (2001): 1421–24.
8.Aid statistics from OECD online database (all donors, net disbursements).
9.UNDP, Poverty Strategies Initiative, 1998, http://www.undp.org/poverty/ povertyarchive/initiatives/psi/.
10.World Bank and IMF, “Global Monitoring Report 2005, Millennium Development Goals: From Consensus to Action,” World Bank, Washington, D.C., April 2005, p. 173.
11.http://worldbank.org/cdf/cdf-text.htm.
12.http://econ.worldbank.org/wdr/wdr2004/.
13.See Michael Kremer and Edward Miguel, “The Illusion of ustainability,” mimeograph, Harvard University and University of California at Berkeley, 2003.
14.Deon Filmer and Lant Pritchett, “What Educational Production Functions Really Show: A Positive Theory of Education Spending,” World Bank Policy Research Paper 1795, Washington, D.C., 1997.
15.World Bank, A Sourcebook for Poverty Reduction Strategies, 2002.
16.OECD policy brief, “Untying Aid to the Least-Developed Countries,” July 2001, Paris.
17.Alberto Alesina and David Dollar, “Who Gives Foreign Aid to Whom and Why,” Journal of Economic Growth 5 March 2002): 33–64.
18.OECD and UNDP, 1999.
19.World Bank, Operations Evaluation Department, “Influential Evaluations: Evaluations That Improved Performance and Impacts of Development Programs,” Washington D.C., 2004.
20.James Ferguson, The Anti-Politics Machine: “Development,” Depolarization, and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994, pp. 170–71.
21.Ibid., pp. 231, 233.
22.Judy L. Baker, “Evaluating the Impact of Development Projects on Poverty: A Handbook for Practitioners, Directions in Development,” World Bank, Washington, D.C., 2000.
23.World Bank, A Sourcebook for Poverty Reduction Strategies, 2002.
24.UN Millennium Project, “Investing in Development: A Practical Plan to Reach the Millennium Development Goals,” main report, 2005, p. 61.
25.Scott, Seeing Like a State, 1998, p. 346.
26.http://www.usaid.gov/faqs.html.
27.http://www.un.org/esa/coordination/ecosoc/wgga/Home1.htm.
CHAPTER 6. BAILING OUT THE POOR
1.World Development Indicators, observation for 2000.
2.World Bank, World Development Indicators, observation for 2000 on height for age and weight for height.
3.Demographic and Health Surveys, http://www.measuredhs.com/countries/ country.cfm.
4.International Monetary Fund, Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, “Fifth Review Under the Three-Year Arrangement Under the Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility,” February 4, 2004, pp. 15, 17.
5.http://www.imf.org/external/np/tre/lend/terms.htm.
6.http://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/facts/finfac.htm.
7.http://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/facts/howlend.htm.
8.Jacques Polak, “The IMF Monetary Model at 40, Economic Modelling 15(1998): 395–410.
9.Juan Forrero, “Ecuador’s Leader Flees and Vice President Replaces Him,” New York Times, April 21, 2005, p. A3.
10.IMF, World Development Movement, “States of Unrest: Resistance to IMF Policies in Poor Countries,” September 2000,http://www.wdm.org.uk/presrel/ current/anti_IMF.htm.
11.Richard Barth and William Hemphill, with contributions from Irina Aganina, Susan George, Joshua Greene, Caryl McNeilly, and Jukka Paljarvi, Financial Programming and Policy: The Case of Turkey, Washington, D.C.: IMF Institute, International Monetary Fund, 2000.
12.This is the median ratio of the absolute value of the adjustment to total domestic financing for all available data 1970–1999.
13.R. Baqir, R. Ramcharan, and R. Sahay, “The Consistency of IMF Programs,” mimeograph, IMF, October 2003.14.http://www.emgmkts.com/research/intro.htm#TheEM.
15.Easterly, “What Did Structural Adjustment Adjust?”
16.Both countries recently completed IMF programs successfully for the first time.
17.IMF, Independent Evaluation Office, “Evaluation of the Prolonged Use of Fund Resources,” Washington, D.C., September 2002.
18.http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTDEBTDEPT/0,,contentMDK:20260411~menuPK:528655~pagePK:64166689~piPK:6416 6646~theSitePK:469043,00.html.
19.R. Baqir, R. Ramcharan, and R. Sahay, “The Consistency of IMF Programs.”
20.See the chapter “Forgive Us Our Debts,” in W. Easterly, The Elusive Quest for Growth: Economists’ Adventures and Misadventures in the Tropics, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2001.
21.Michael Mussa, Argentina and the Fund: From Triumph to Tragedy(Policy Analyses in International Economics 67 ) Washington, D.C.: Institute for International Economics, 2002. This section is based on Mussa but differs in emphasis and conclusions in several places; in any case, Mussa should not be held responsible for anything said here.
22.“Argentina’s Debt Restructuring: Victory by Default?” The Economist, March 3,2005.
23.http://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/facts/prgf.htm.
24.IMF, “Factsheet: The IMF and the Environment,” April 2004.
25.William Pfaff, Barbarian Sentiments: America in the New Century, New York: Hill & Wang, 2000, p. 206.
CHAPTER 7. THE HEALERS: TRIUMPH AND TRAGEDY
1.Center for Global Development, “Millions Saved: Proven Successes in Global Health,” Washington, D.C., 2004.
2.Bekki J. Johnson and Robert S. Pond, “AIDS in Africa: A Review of Medical, Public Health, Social Science, and Popular Literature,” MISEORE, Campaign Against Hunger and Disease in the World (Episcopal Organization for Development Cooperations), Aachen, West Germany, 1988.
3.World Bank, Africa Technical Department, “Acquired Imm
une Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS): The Bank’s Agenda for Action in Africa,” October 24, 1988.
4.Jean-Louis Lamboray and A. Edward Elmendorf, “Combatting AIDS and Other Sexually Transmitted Diseases in Africa: A Review of the World Bank’s Agenda for Action,” World Bank Discussion Paper no. 181, Africa Technical Department, 1992, p. 29.
5.Jill Armstrong, “Socioeconomic Implications of AIDS in Developing Countries,” Finance and Development 28, no. 4 (December 1991): 14–17.
6.The World Bank at this time thought the best approach was to target the “core transmitters” of the disease, such as prostitutes. AIDS researcher Helen Epstein has since argued that this was a mistake: that the spread of AIDS in Africa was due mainly to the prevalence of multiple long-term sexual relationships among the general population, which created a sexual network through which AIDS quickly spread. See Helen Epstein, “Why Is AIDS Worse in Africa?,” Discover 25, no. 2 (February 2004), and Daniel T. Halperin and Helen Epstein, “Sexual Networks Help to Explain Africa’s High HIV Prevalence: Implications for Prevention,” www.thelancet.com, vol. 364, July 3, 2004.
7.Julia Dayton, “World Bank HIV/AIDS Interventions: Ex-ante and Ex-post Evaluation,” World Bank discussion paper no. 389, Washington, D.C., 1998, p. 9.
8.World Bank, Africa Region, “Intensifying Action Against HIV/AIDS in Africa: Responding to a Development Crisis,” 2000.
9.http://www.worldbank.org/afr/aids/map/me_manual.pdf.
10.This story comes from Emma Guest, Children of AIDS: Africa’s Orphan Crisis, London: Pluto Press, 2001.
11.Adam Ashforth, Witchcraft, Violence, and Democracy in South Africa, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005, pp. 8–10.
12.Guest, Children of AIDS, pp. 144–47.
13.Anne Case, Christina Paxson, and Joseph Ableidinger, “The Education of African Orphans,” Princeton University mimeograph, 2003, http://www.wws.princeton.edu/%7Erpds/Downloads/case_paxson_education_orphans.pdf.
14.WHO/UNAIDS, “Report on the Methods Used to Estimate Costs of Reaching the WHO Target of ‘3 by 5,’” February 10, 2004, p. 6.
15.Andrew Creese, Katherine Floyd, Anita Alban, Lorna Guiness, Cost-effectiveness of HIV/AIDS Inverventions in Africa: A Systematic Review of the Evidence,” The Lancet 359 (2002): 1635–42; Lilani Kumaranayarake, “Cost-Effectiveness and Economic Evaluation of HIV/AIDS-Related Interventions: The State of the Art,” in International AIDS Economics Network, State of the Art: AIDS and Economics, HIV/AIDS Policy Project, www.iaen.org/conferences/stateofepidemic. php., 2002.
16.http://www.interaction.org/advocacy/budget_request_05.html, FY2005 Foreign Operations Budget Request Summary and Analysis.
17.WHO, World Health Report 2003, Annex 2.
18.See, for example, Emiko Masaki, Russell Green, Fiona Greig, Julia Walsh, and Malcolm Potts, “Cost-Effectiveness of HIV Prevention Versus Treatment for Resource-Scarce Countries: Setting Priorities for HIV/AIDS Management,” Bay Area International Group, School of Public Health, University of California at Berkeley, 2002.
19.http://www.massiveeffort.org/html/success_stories__vietnam.html, http://rbm. who.int/cmc_upload/0/000/017/025/vietnam-ettling.pdf.
20.Salim Abdulla, Joanna Armstrong Schellenberg, Rose Nathan, Oscar Mukasa, Tanya Marchant, Tom Smith, Marcel Tanner, Christian Lengeler, “Impact on Malaria Morbidity of a Programme Supplying Insecticide-Treated Nets in Children Aged Under Two Years in Tanzania: Community Cross-Sectional Study,” British Medical Journal, 322 (February 3, 2001): 270–73.
21.Gareth Jones, Richard W. Steketee, Robert E. Black, Zulfiqar A. Bhutta, Saul S. Morris, and the Bellagio Child Survival Study Group, “How Many Child Deaths Can We Prevent This Year?” The Lancet 362 (2003): 65–71.
22.WHO/UNAIDS, “Report on the Methods Used to Estimate Costs of Reaching the WHO Target of ‘3 by 5,’” February 10, 2004.
23.United Nations Population Division (UNDP), “World Population Prospects,” 2004 revision, 2005, p. 22.
24.David Canning, “The Economics of HIV/AIDS Treatment and Prevention in Developing Countries,” Harvard School of Public Health, mimeograph, 2005, forthcoming in Journal of Economic Perspectives.
25.Center for Health and Gender Equity and Sexuality, Information and Education Council of the United States, “The U.S. Global AIDS Strategy: Politics, Ideology, and the Global AIDS Epidemic,” May 2003.
26.Human Rights Watch, “The Less They Know, the Better: Abstinence-Only HIV/AIDS Programs in Uganda,” Human Rights Watch 17, no. 4a (March 2005).
27.Helen Epstein, “God and the Fight Against AIDS,” New York Review of Books, April 28, 2005.
28.Barcelona AIDS Conference Reports, “President Bush Is Killing People with AIDS by Lack of Leadership,” http://www.actupny.org/reports/bcn/Bcnbush AUpr.html.
29.WHO, World Health Report 2002, “Reducing Risks, Promoting Healthy Life,” Geneva, 2002, p. 92.
30.Ibid., pp. 123, 132.
31.Daniel Bergner, In the Land of Magic Soldiers: A Story of White and Black in West Africa, New York: Farrar, Straus, & Giroux, 2003, pp. 66–68.
32.Dr. Stan Lehman and colleagues, CDC, presentation at XIII International AIDS Conference, Durban, South Africa, 2000.
33.Warren Stevens, Steve Kaye, and Tumani Corrah, “Antiretroviral Therapy in Africa,” British Medical Journal 328 (January 31, 2004): 280–82.
34.Merle A. Sande and Allan Ronald, “Treatment of HIV/AIDS: Do the Dilemmas Only Increase?” Journal of the American Medical Association 292, no. 2 (July 14, 2004): 267. I saw the reference first in an excellent article by Roger Bate, “Slippery AIDS Statistics: Why Loose HIV Numbers Create False Hope and Bad Policy,” Health Policy Outlook, AEI Online (Washington), May 6, 2005.
CHAPTER 8. FROM COLONIALISM TO POSTMODERN IMPERIALISM
1.F. A. Hayek, The Fatal Conceit: The Errors of Socialism, edited by W. W. Bartley III, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988, p. 76.
2.References can be found in Jeremy M. Weinstein, “Autonomous Recovery and International Intervention in Comparative Perspective,” Center for Global Development Working Paper no. 57, April 2005.
3.James Fearon and David Laitin, “Neotrusteeship and the Problem of Weak States,” International Security 28, no. 4 (Spring 2004): 5–43.
4.Sebastian Mallaby, “The Reluctant Imperialist: Terrorism, Failed States, the Case for American Empire,” Foreign Affairs 81, no. 2 (March/April 2002); Chester Crocker, “Engaging Failing States,” Foreign Affairs 84, no. 5 September/October 2003); Stuart Eizenstat, John Edward Porter, and Jeremy Weinstein, “Rebuilding Weak States,” Foreign Affairs 84, no. 1 (January/February 2005); Stephen D. Krasner and Carlos Pascual, “Addressing State Failure,” Foreign Affairs 84, no. 4 (July/August 2005); Stephen Ellis, “How to Rebuild Africa,” Foreign Affairs 84, no. 5 (September/October 2005).
5.Krasner and Pascual, “Addressing State Failure.”
6.Niall Ferguson, Colossus: The Price of America’s Empire, New York: The Penguin Press, 2004, p. 198.
7.D. K. Fieldhouse, The Colonial Empires: A Comparative Survey from the Eighteenth Century, New York: Macmillan, 1982, pp. 276–77.
8.Edmund Burke, speech on Mr. Fox’s East India Bill, December 1783, in saac Kramnick, The Portable Edmund Burke, Viking Portable Library, New York: Penguin Putnam, 1999, p. 374.
9.Mahmood Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1996, p. 73.
10.Robert B. Edgerton, The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2002, pp. 162–63.
11.John Iliffe, Africans: The History of a Continent, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995, p. 198.
12.Mamdani, Citizen and Subject, pp. 79, 41.
13.Iliffe, Africans, p. 201.
14.Ibid., p. 201.
15.Mamdani, Citizen and Subject, p. 53.
16.Iliffe, Africans, p. 201.
17.Mamdani, Citizen and Subjects, p. 52.
18.Ibid., pp. 54–5
6.
19.Iliffe, Africans, p. 200.
20.Ibid., p. 199.
21.Ibid., pp. 251–52.
22.Fieldhouse, Colonial Empires, p. 161.
23.Abhijit Banerjee and Lakshmi Iyer, “History, Institutions, and Economic Systems: The Legacy of Colonial Land Tenure Systems in India,” MIT mimeograph, October 2004; Fieldhouse, Colonial Empires, pp. 278–79; and Ravina Daphtary, “Systems of Land Tenure in Bengal: The Unyielding Legacy of the Zamindar,” NYU undergraduate thesis, April 2005.
24.Fieldhouse, Colonial Empires, pp. 280–83.
25.Bergner, Land of Magic Soldiers, p. 29.
26.P. J. Cain and A. G. Hopkins, British Imperialism, 1688–2000, 2d ed., Harlow, UK: Longman, Pearson Education, 2002, p. 83.
27.Niall Ferguson, Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power, New York: Basic Books, 2004, p. 116.
28.Ibid., p. 141.
29.Cain and Hopkins, British Imperialism, p. 291.
30.Ferguson, Empire, p. 22.
31.Cain and Hopkins, British Imperialism, p. 291.
32.James, Rise and Fall, p. 175.
33.Angus Maddison, “The World Economy: Historical Statistics,” Development Centre of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2003.
34.Cain and Hopkins, British Imperialism, p. 308.
35.Iliffe, Africans, p. 204.
36.Ibid., p. 212.
37.Ibid., p. 222.
38.Ibid., pp. 203–4.
39.Maddison, “World Economy.”
40.Mamdani, Citizen and Subject, p. 158.
41.Bergner, Land of Magic Soldiers, p. 97.
42.Scott, Seeing Like a State, pp. 226–28.
43.Thayer Watkins, “The Tanganyikan Groundnuts Scheme,” San José State University Economics Department, at http://www2.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/ groundnt.htm.
44.Maddison, World Economy.”
45.Ibid. Other Asian colonies are Bangladesh, Burma, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Jordan, Lebanon, Malaysia, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Syria, and Vietnam.
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