356a performance on October 8: Amsterdam News, Oct. 2, 1929, p. 8, and Oct. 9, 1929, p. 9; Defender, Oct. 19, 1929, p. 6.
356The Lafayette … he didn’t: Dominique CJA 1952. Armstrong 1966, 40; marijuana: Mezzrow 1946, 236; Clayton IJS n.d. Holiday: Shapiro and Hentoff 1955, 198.
356In September he performed: Defender, Sept. 7, 1929, p. A3.
356“I believe” … 16 times previously: Armstrong 1936, 91. 22 times: Crawford and Magee 1992, 71–72.
357he remembered: Harker 2011, 93.
361At some point … Singleton remembered: The Interstate Tattler (Nov. 22, 1929, p. 11) has an ad for Louis Armstrong and His Connie’s Inn Orchestra playing for a “breakfast dance” from 3:00 to 8:30 a.m. on Thanksgiving morning at Rockland Palace, 155th Street and Eighth Avenue. Armstrong 1999, 105. Singleton IJS 1975.
361Rockwell started booking … New Year’s Eve: Keepnews 1950, 25; Armstrong 1999, 105. 1928: Kenney 1999, 173. Ferrer: Armstrong LAHM Tape 17. Philadelphia Tribune, Dec. 26, 1929, p. 6.
361The Russell band … he said: A good discussion of Allen’s musical debt to Armstrong is in Lyttelton 1978, 193. Armstrong LAHM 1970.
363“Poor Russell”: Holmes IJS n.d.
364“Compared with the Hot Five”: Lyttelton 1978, 135.
365there is no discernible change: See the good discussion of this performance in Eisenberg 1987, 156.
365Breaking into … “rhythm of the jungle”: Hines: Dance 1977, 62. Defender, Dec. 5, 1931, p. 5.
365It was a get-ahead decade … the only African American: Foster 2005, 167. “December Records,” Time, Dec. 15, 1930, p. 28. Scrapbook 83, LAHM.
366a report from Baltimore: Afro-American, Jan. 18, 1930, p. A9.
367gathered mixed reviews: Scrapbook 83, LAHM; see also New York Morning Telegraph, January 1928, p. 7, reference courtesy Steven Lasker and Ken Steiner.
367On January 24 … “than the orchestra”: Scrapbook 83, LAHM (identified as Daily Mirror, Monday, March 24, 1930). New stunt: Scrapbook 83, LAHM.
368“I just try”: Scrapbook 6, LAHM.
368he offered $5,000 cash: Scrapbook 83, LAHM.
369Tiger Rag was recorded: Crawford and Magee 1992 list 16 recordings of Dinah before Armstrong’s, and 56 recordings of Tiger Rag.
369Again musical quotations … recorded performances: Tiger Rag: St. Cyr HJA 1958; Morton 2005; Szwed 2005, 36–41. Quotes: Berrett 1992, 224.
370recordings shaped jazz history: This section benefits from Katz 2004 and Eisenberg 1987.
372as Clyde Bernhardt and Louis Metcalf tell us: Shapiro and Hentoff 1955, 206. Bernhardt 1968, 46; Bernhardt FDC 1074.
373“It would have been impossible”: Wright 1998, 250.
373“the way he carried himself”: Jones 1988, 138–39.
374The recordings lost … “emancipated the jazz musician”: Watts HJA 1963. Johnson IJS n.d. Cootie Williams IJS 1976. Price: Jones and Chilton 1971, 99.
375Shoeshine boys on Royal Street: Barker 1986, 59; Manone 1948, 99.
376A trip to Paris was announced: Scrapbook 83, LAHM.
376the chance to make a movie: California Eagle, July 11, 1930, p. 8.
Chapter 9: The Rosetta Stone
377“[Armstrong] found the Rosetta stone”: Quoted in Stanley Crouch, “The Colossus,” The New Yorker, May 9, 2005, p. 64.
377Armstrong left Chicago … he quipped: Information on the arrival from Dickerson 2002, 158; Armstrong 1999, 117; see also the regular columns for the Defender (“Coast Breezes”) and Afro-American (“Movie Gossip”). Arrival dated Wednesday, July 9, in the California Eagle (July 11, 1930, p. 1); reference courtesy Steven Lasker. Hinton IJS 1976. “The Lord”: Armstrong 1999, 107–8.
377The Dunbar … starring Amos ’n’ Andy: Du Bois: Bogle 2005, 77. Jones and Chilton 1971, 115.
378What lured him … “his own song style”: Scrapbook 83, LAHM. Also on Sebastian’s, see Bryant 1988. Quote from Scrapbook 83, LAHM, clipping identified as Los Angeles Evening Herald, July 10, 1930.
378Sebastian’s Cotton Club … as you approached: There is much evidence about the segregated policy of the Cotton Club, including this from a clipping in Scrapbook 83, LAHM, dated Aug. 22, 1930: “Vernon Elkin and his orchestra with Louis Armstrong as the star trumpet are playing at Sebastian’s Cotton Club, which caters exclusively to white trade.” See also California Eagle, Aug. 15, 1930, p. 10, and Oct. 31, 1930, p. 1; also Defender, Oct. 28 (local edition, page unidentified; photocopy courtesy Steven Lasker). Armstrong, Lillian 1963. Royal 1996, 36.
379Dickerson was supposed to yell out: Royal 1996, 44.
379Forty entertainers … according to one clipping: Defender, Aug. 16, 1930, p. 5, and Jan. 10, 1931, p. 5. Scrapbook 5, LAHM, clipping identified as Defender, July 19.
379He brought … Red Top taxis: “took over”: Scrapbook 83, LAHM, clippings identified as Los Angeles Evening Herald, July 21, 1930, and July 18, 1930. Taxis: Scrapbook 83, LAHM, clipping identified as Los Angeles Evening Herald, July 26, 1930.
380The Cotton Club … Lillian’s clipped articles: “the newly found rich”: Bryant 1998, 38. Armstrong LAHM Tape 202. Armstrong 1961, 82. “Patrons have”: Scrapbook 83, LAHM.
380“The few [white] parties I did go to”: Armstrong 1961, 82.
380The band included … “their instrument”: “I discovered”: Armstrong 1999, 106. Hampton 1993, 37. “When I sing”: Dance 1974, 268. Cootie Williams IJS 1976. Armstrong 1999, 118.
381You can almost hear him: The performance is partially transcribed in Armstrong 2003, 6–7. Rodgers continually inserts two-beat measures into the flow of otherwise regular blues phrases, and he does so differently in each chorus.
382“He rarely has more than a rough idea”: “Black Rascal,” Time, June 13, 1932 (accessed online, n.p.).
382This scat solo … in Culver City: Clayton IJS n.d. Armstrong 1999, 106; Dance 1974, 270.
382The new show … higher still: Scrapbook 83, LAHM, clipping identified as Los Angeles Evening Herald, July 29, 1930. Armstrong, Lillian 1963.
383In August … the youngster play out: Scrapbook 83, LAHM, clipping identified as Los Angeles Evening Herald, July 29, 1930. Overloading: Travis 1981, 506. James: Havens 1992, 8.
384The crooners … did not exist: Gellhorn 1929, 311. In 1941 (Armstrong IJS 1941), Armstrong was asked to list some of his favorite recordings, and the two from this California period that he mentioned were Confessin’ and Memories of You. For the possibility: good discussion of this phenomenon in Magee 2005, 138 and 183.
384“I just stopped still”: Clayton and Elliot 1987, 44.
384African Americans got … “for blues in addition”: “The finest”: California Eagle, Aug. 29, 1930, p. 11, Scrapbook 83, LAHM. “He not only”: Scrapbook 83, LAHM, clipping identified as Los Angeles Evening Herald, July 21, 1930; see also Los Angeles Daily News, July 26, 1930, p. 23; July 28, 1930, p. 6; Aug. 25, 1930, p. 21 (references courtesy Steven Lasker).
384Life was good … as souvenirs: Mosby: California Eagle, Aug. 25, 1930, p. 6. Miniature golf: Scrapbook 83, LAHM. Handkerchiefs: Dance 1974, 270.
385“paving the way for the Race”: Defender, Jan. 10, 1931, p. 5.
385Armstrong began … Ellington’s reputation: Afro-American, Feb. 21, 1931, p. 8. Bogle 2005, 106.
385Disappointingly … survive today: Variety: Bogle 2005, 106. Los Angeles Times, Dec. 19, 1930, p. A9. Steven Lasker has kindly provided me with an unidentified advertisement that reads: “A real American Jazz Band of lively colored folk appear as an attraction at an elaborate English house party in ‘Ex-Flame,’ the modernized version of ‘East Lynne,’ produced under the direction of Victor Halperin for Liberty Productions. Louis Armstrong and his band provide the uproarious music to which Neil Hamilton, Marian Nixon, Norman Kerry, Judith Barrie and others of an extremely well chosen cast make merry. Begins today at the Pastime Theatre.” Chicago Daily Tribune, Jan. 23, 1931, p. 20. Reviews in Daily Reporter, Oct. 23, 1930, p. 4 (courtesy Steven Lasker); Defender, Dec. 27, 1930, p. 5.
/> 386he especially admired: Clayton and Elliot 1987, 44.
386“They have a new”: Afro-American, Feb. 22, 1930, p. 8, and Feb. 15, 1930, p. 8.
386Trombones are built … drug addiction: Clayton and Elliot 1987, 45. On glissing in New Orleans, see also Chilton 1987, 49.
387On the drive downtown … broadcast that night: Armstrong WRC 1953; Jones and Chilton 1971, 113. Variety, Nov. 19, p. 57, and Nov. 29, 1930, p. 5; photocopies of these and other documents related to the trial courtesy Steven Lasker. Red Mack: Clayton and Elliot 1987, 46.
387As noted in Chapter 7 … “very much”: Dance 1977, 146; Peretti 1992, 139. Muggles, recorded Dec. 7, 1928, is the enduring testament to this beginning. Foster 2005, 188. Armstrong 1999, 114. Armstrong WRC 1953.
389When he joined … Armstrong toured: Often-repeated claims: for example, Martin Booth, Cannabis: A History (New York: Doubleday, 2003), 138. Dodds 1992, 43. The whites: Keller 1989, 86; Meyer CJA 1965, 1971, 1974; Jess Stacy in Feather 1976, 84; Carmichael 1999, 53, and 1999a, 89 and 101; Bud Jacobson in Banks 1980, 229; Shapiro and Hentoff 1955, 141; Hammond 1977, 106.
389By the time … distributed by whites: Assassin: Reproduced in David Musto, ed., Drugs in America: A Documentary History (New York: New York University Press, 2002), 433. Norfolk Journal and Guide, Oct. 11, 1930, p. 9. California Eagle, Nov. 2, 1930.
389Armstrong’s trial … “drive away smiling”: Information from California Eagle, March 13, 1931, p. 1, and March 27, 1931, p. 1; Defender, March 21, 1931, p. 1. Jones and Chilton 1971, 115.
390Transcripts … moved to Chicago: The transcripts were discovered by Steve Lasker and are discussed and quoted in Teachout 2009, 157–58 and 413–14. Jones and Chilton 1971, 114.
390As the decades passed … Russell in 1953: Armstrong 1999, 114. Armstrong WRC 1953.
390He thought of marijuana … he explained: Armstrong WRC 1953; Jones and Chilton 1971, 113; Armstrong 1999, 75. Hammond 106; Armstrong 1999, 112.
391Marijuana was … preferences were clear: Armstrong 1999 112, 114, and 25; see also Armstrong WRC 1953. Quotations from Armstrong, except Carroll Dickerson, from Natty Dominique. Armstrong WRC 1953; Freeman IJS n.d.; Smith 1964, 259; Dominique CJA 1981. Mezzrow 1946, 94. Hinton IJS 1976; Armstrong WRC 1953; Armstrong 1999, 68.
391The legal status … Gertrude Michael sang: Keller 1989, 86; Feather 1976, 84. Budd Johnson IJS n.d.; Dance 1977, 211–12.
391Armstrong wasn’t … King Louis: “Anybody from”: Jones and Chilton 1971, 113. Hammond 1977, 106. Budd Johnson IJS n.d.; Dance 1977, 211–12. He and Billie: Clarke 1994, 203.
392Budd Johnson had the idea: Randolph IJS 1977.
392Cab Calloway’s famous Minnie the Moocher: Hinton IJS 1976.
393He was adamant … the association: Armstrong WRC 1953; Armstrong 1971, 218. Before and after: See also Budd Johnson IJS n.d.
393Hammond detested: Hammond 1977, 106.
393Hoagy Carmichael … “write those songs?”: Carmichael 1999a, 175–76; see also Hinton IJS 1976; Barker 1986, 137. Mezzrow 1946, 74. Carpenter: Dance 1977, 146.
394What can definitely … he grumbled: Bill Robinson: Fox 1960, 96. Professional: For testimony specific to 1931, see Havens 1992, 7. Baldwin 1961, 199. Gillespie: Dance 1977, 260. Armstrong 1999, 114.
395An early description … in his community: Epstein Sinful Tunes and Spirituals, 302. Givan (2004, 188) also relates Armstrong’s vocal performances from the early 1930s to the African-American vernacular tradition, with reference to Jeannette Robinson Murphy’s discussion, in 1899, of “Negro melodies” in which “around every prominent note [the singer] must place a variety of small notes, called ‘trimmings,’” and “must also intersperse his singing with peculiar humming sounds.” Duhé: Brothers 2006, 156, 157, and chap. 7.
395Ragging the tune: On the usage of “ragging the tune” and its relationship to ragtime, see Brothers 2006, chap. 7.
395“in typical Negro fashion”: Scrapbook 83, LAHM.
396“Riffing”: From a 1962 interview conducted by Pat O’Daniels for Lyke magazine (p. 54): Q: “Could you explain a little about what ‘scat’ is?” A: “Oh it’s nothing… . They used to call it ‘riffing,’ you know, ‘rif.’ It’s from the South, you know, there’s no worry about style or sound or anything.”
397“blubbering, cannibalistic sounds”: Carmichael 1999, 140; Leonard 1987, 95. Appel (2002, 154) points out that Armstrong’s additions of address to “mama” in songs like Exactly Like You, Star Dust, and Georgia on My Mind identify a black female, rather than white.
397Verbal and musical departures: It would be difficult to quantify, but there often seems to be a loose correlation between the degree of departure from the melody and degree of departure from the words. When the departures are relatively light (for example, I Surrender Dear), he blurs words, and when they are complete, he scats, though the correlation is certainly not consistent.
397Scat combines with melodic invention: Givan 2004; Edwards 2002; Panassié in Berrett 1999, 70.
397“Negroes, too, could live”: Wright 1998, 271.
398White crooners … “at his own pleasure”: See McCracken 1999, 378, on the passive role playing of the crooners. “Tenderly”: McCracken 1999, 377. Scrapbook 83, LAHM.
398“Whatever the Negro does”: Hurston 1995, 224–27. Vallée: Armstrong 1936, vii.
400“white Americans seem to feel”: Baldwin 1967, 56.
400to create the illusion of direct access: Taylor 2002, 438, quoting Herman S. Hetinger from 1933: “The real success of crooning has been not in its musical aspects, but in the personal touch and atmosphere of romantic intimacy which the crooner has been able to build up through his distinctive delivery.”
401“divine details”: John Updike, Introduction to Vladimir Nabokov, Lectures on Literature (New York, Harcourt, 1980), xxiii.
403In this case … often been noted: Sudhalter 2002, 108–13. Carmichael 1999a 227; Dance 1977, 49.
404The simple gestures: Schuller 1989, 173–76. My discussion is of the take Schuller identifies as “take 2” (OKeh W 405061-4).
407“a beautiful romantic song”: Armstrong 1936, viii.
407This music is … the same way: Savran 2009, 149ff. Seldes: Douglas 1995, 38.
407But ragging … its main thesis: “into spade’s life”: Millstein n.d. Appel 2002.
408“ultra modern”: An American precedent is R. D. Darrell, writing in Phonograph Monthly Review: “Strawinskites and Bartokians will find more than a trace of their cherished modern feeling right here [in A Monday Date by Armstrong and Hines]” (December 1930, quoted in Collier 1988, 37). References from Scrapbook 6, LAHM, some of which can be only partially identified: Dudley Leslie, Evening News, July 22, 1932; handwritten “Leeds Oct. 15”; Daily Herald, July 25, 1932; Daily Express, July 20, 1932.
409His was advertised … in the business: Defender, Nov. 14, 1931, p. 5. Time, “Black Rascal,” June 13, 1932 (accessed online, n.p.).
409Records had become … modern scale: Crooners and radio: McCracken 1999 and 2000. “Are your”: Quoted and discussed in Taylor 2002, 425.
410When Armstrong arrived … stunning modernity: California Eagle, July 11, 1930, p. 8; Defender, July 19, 1930, p. 5. California Eagle, March 13, 1931, p. 1: “His bizarre method of playing the trumpet and his individualistic interpretation of popular songs have won him wide following among night club followers and radio fans, who listened in great numbers to his nightly broadcasts.” Armstrong 1999, 107. Radio broadcasts were reported from midnight to 1:00 a.m.; “Louie Armstrong to 3:30. KMIC”; and “KMIC Sebastian’s Orchestra to 2:30.” Photocopies of newspaper clippings courtesy Steven Lasker. Leonard 1962, 94.
410Did Armstrong have … he once quipped: Bud Freeman 1974, 16. On this topic, see also Gushee 1998. Berigan: Dupuis 1993, 22. Maxwell IJS 1979; Dance 1974, 149. Gonella: Dixon 2000, 99. Pinkett: Barker 1986, 132. Armstrong WRC n.d.
411With his voice … Riffin’ the Scotch: Selby: Singleton IJS 1975. Boswell: Scrapbook 83, LAHM. Crosby:
Armstrong 1936, ix.
411“made his greatest recordings”: Hammond 1977, 107.
412“Louie Armstrong’s boys”: Defender, May 16, 1931, p. 5, and June 20, 1931, p. 5. California Eagle, March 27, 1931, p. 9.
412On Sunday … stayed in California: “That moment”: Jones and Chilton 1971, 116. Louisiana Weekly, March 28, 1931, p. 1.
412The South Side … as his chef: Drake and Cayton 1970, 83. California Eagle, March 27, 1931, p. 10; Armstrong 1999, 107. Dance 1977, 146; Freeman CJA 1980.
413Meanwhile … noted the Defender: Jackson 2005, 94; Havens 1992, 6. Jackson FDC 1973. Armstrong 1936, viii. Defender, Jan. 31, 1931, p. 5.
413On April 8 … design of his solos: This paragraph is based mainly on a clipping from Scrapbook 83, LAHM, entitled “Bright Spots” by Charlie Dawn; also Freeman 1970, 17; Defender, April 11, 1931, p. 5; Jackson 2005, 97. On Tiger Rag, see also Dance 1977, 146; Havens 1992. Panico: Jackson 2005, 97.
414“Come to think of it”: Armstrong 1999, 108–9.
414The Show Boat … years later: Havens 1992, 6; Travis 1981, 240. Hinton 1988, 49. Jackson 2005, 97. Quoted in Teachout 2009, 162, with a fuller version of the story.
415Frankie Foster … in one newspaper: King 1967, 67; Armstrong 1999, 110; Jones 1988, 135; Scrapbooks 5 and 83, LAHM; Chicago Tribune, April 19, 1931, p. 3, and April 22, 1931, p. 3; Defender, April 25. “The more”: Scrapbook 5, LAHM.
415But the pressure … train for New Orleans: Shapiro and Hentoff 1955, 130; Jackson 2005, 97; Defender, May 16, 1931, p. 5; Jackson HJA 1958. Jackson 2005, 100.
415Plans were to go … was not easy: Travis 1981, 240; Hinton IJS 1976. “You needed”: King 1967, 67. “Always”: Armstrong 1999, 160.
416The irony was: Armstrong 1999, 33.
Chapter 10: Sleepy Time Down South
417“Music is such a tremendous proposition”: Morton quoted in Lomax 1993, 237.
417The cultural impact … “was over”: Laird and Rust 2004, 74. Stearns and Stearns 1994, 158. Fitzgerald 1993, 46.
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