40. See Alexander 1987.
41. See ibid.
42. See Sober and Wilson 1998; see also Boehm 2008b and Boehm 2009.
43. See Boehm 1976, Boehm 1991a, and Boehm 2008b.
44. See Wilson 1975.
45. See, for example, Harpending and Rogers 2000 and Hawks et al. 2000.
46. See Burroughs 2005.
47. See Popper 1978.
NOTES TO EPILOGUE: HUMANITY’S MORAL FUTURE
1. See Boehm 2003.
2. See Pinker 2011.
3. See Boehm 2003.
4. See Pinker 2011.
5. See Wrangham 1999.
6. See Woodburn 1982.
REFERENCES
Aberle, D. F., Cohen, A. K., Davis, A. K., Levy, M. J., and Sutton Jr., F. X. 1950. The functional prerequisites of a society. Ethics 60:100–111.
Alexander, R. D. 1974. The evolution of social behavior. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 5:325–384.
———. 1979. Darwinism and human affairs. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
———. 1987. The biology of moral systems. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
———. 2005. Evolutionary selection and the nature of humanity. In Darwinism and philosophy, eds. V. Hosle and C. Illies. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.
———. 2006. The challenge of human social behavior: Review of Hammerstein, genetic and cultural evolution of cooperation. Evolutionary Psychology 4:1–32.
Allen-Arave, W., Gurven, M., and Hill, K. 2008. Reciprocal altruism, rather than kin selection, maintains nepotistic food transfers on an Aché reservation. Evolution and Human Behavior 29:305–318.
Balikci, A. 1970. The Netsilik Eskimo. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
Barnett, S. A. 1958. An analysis of social behavior in wild rats. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 130:107–151.
Batson, C. D. 2009. These things called empathy: Eight related but distinct phenomena. In The social neuroscience of empathy, eds. J. Decety and W. Ickes. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
———. 2011. Altruism in humans. New York: Oxford University Press.
Bearzi, M., and Stanford, C. B. 2008. Beautiful minds: The parallel lives of great apes and dolphins. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Betzig, L. L. 1986. Despotism and differential reproduction: A Darwinian view of history. New York: Aldine.
Beyene, Y. 2010. Herto brains and minds: Behaviour of early Homo sapiens from the middle awash, Ethiopia. In Social brain, distributed mind, eds. R. Dunbar, C. Gamble, and J. Gowlett. New York: Oxford University Press.
Binford, L. 1978. Nunamiut ethnoarchaeology. New York: Academic Press.
———. 2001. Constructing frames of reference: An analytical method for archaeological theory building using hunter–gatherer and environmental data sets. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Bird, R. B., Smith, E. A., and Bird, D. W. 2001. The hunting handicap: Costly signaling in human foraging strategies. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 50:9–19.
Bird-David, N. 1992. Beyond “The original affluent society”: A culturalist reformation. Current Anthropology 33:25–48.
Black, D. 2011. Moral time. New York: Oxford University Press.
Blurton Jones, N. G. 1991. Tolerated theft: Suggestions about the ecology and evolution of sharing, hoarding, and scrounging. In Primate politics, eds. G. Schubert and R. D. Masters. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.
Boehm, C. 1972. Montenegrin ethical values: An experiment in anthropological method. PhD diss., Harvard University.
———. 1976. Biological versus social evolution. American Psychologist 31:348–351.
———. 1978. Rational pre-selection from Hamadryas to Homo sapiens: The place of decisions in adaptive process. American Anthropologist 80:265–296.
———. 1979. Some problems with “altruism” in the search for moral universals. Behavioral Science 24:15–24.
———. 1980. Exposing the moral self in Montenegro: The use of natural definitions in keeping ethnography descriptive. American Ethnologist 7:1–26.
———. 1981. Parasitic selection and group selection: A study of conflict interference in Rhesus and Japanese Macaque monkeys. In Primate behavior and sociobiology: Proceedings of the international congress of primatology, eds. A. B. Chiarelli and R. S. Corruccini. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.
———. 1982. The evolutionary development of morality as an effect of dominance behavior and conflict interference. Journal of Social and Biological Sciences 5:413–422.
———. 1983. Montenegrin social organization and values. New York: AMS Press.
———. 1985. Execution within the clan as an extreme form of ostracism. Social Science Information 24:309–321.
———. 1986. Blood revenge: The enactment and management of conflict in Montenegro and other tribal societies. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
———. 1989. Ambivalence and compromise in human nature. American Anthropologist 91:921–939.
———. 1991a. Lower–level teleology in biological evolution: Decision behavior and reproductive success in two species. Cultural Dynamics 4:115–134.
———. 1991b. Response to Knauft, violence and sociality in human evolution. Current Anthropology 32:411–412.
———. 1993. Egalitarian behavior and reverse dominance hierarchy. Current Anthropology 34:227–254.
———. 1996. Emergency decisions, cultural selection mechanics, and group selection. Current Anthropology 37:763–793.
———. 1997. Impact of the human egalitarian syndrome on Darwinian selection mechanics. American Naturalist 150:100–121.
———. 1999. Hierarchy in the forest: The evolution of egalitarian behavior. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
———. 2000. Conflict and the evolution of social control. Journal of Consciousness Studies, Special Issue on Evolutionary Origins of Morality. L. Katz, ed. 7:79–183.
———. 2002. Variance reduction and the evolution of social control. Paper presented at Santa Fe Institute, Fifth Annual Workshop on the Co–evolution of Behaviors and Institutions, Santa Fe, New Mexico. www.santafe.edu/files/gems/behavioralsciences/variance.pdf.
———. 2003. Global conflict resolution: An anthropological diagnosis of problems with world governance. In Evolutionary psychology and violence: A primer for policymakers and public policy advocates, eds. R. W. Bloom and N. Dess. London: Praeger.
———. 2004a. Explaining the prosocial side of moral communities. In Evolution and ethics: Human morality in biological and religious perspective, eds. P. Clayton and J. Schloss. New York: Eerdmans.
———. 2004b. What makes humans economically distinctive? A three-species evolutionary comparison and historical analysis. Journal of Bioeconomics 6:109–135.
———. 2007. The natural history of blood revenge. In Feud in medieval and early modern Europe, eds. B. Poulsen and J. B. Netterström. Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press.
———. 2008a. A biocultural evolutionary exploration of supernatural sanctioning. In Evolution of religion: Studies, theories, and critiques, eds. J. Bulbulia, R. Sosis, R. Genet, E. Harris, K. Wyman, and C. Genet. Santa Margarita, CA: Collins Family Foundation.
———. 2008b. Purposive social selection and the evolution of human altruism. Cross-Cultural Research 42:319–352.
———. 2009. How the golden rule can lead to reproductive success: A new selection basis for Alexander’s “indirect reciprocity.” In The golden rule: Analytical perspectives, eds. J. Neusner and B. Chilton. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
———. 2011. Retaliatory violence in human prehistory. British Journal of Criminology 51:518–534.
Boehm, C. 2012. Variance reduction and the evolution of social control: A methodology for the reconstruction of ancestral social behavior from evidence on ethnographic foragers. Working papers, Santa Fe Institute.
Boehm, C
. In press. Costs and benefits in hunter-gatherer punishment. Commentary on Francisco Guala, Reciprocity: Weak or strong? What punishment experiments do and do not demonstrate. Behavioral and Brain Sciences.
Boehm, C., and Flack, J. 2010. The emergence of simple and complex power structures through social niche construction. In The social psychology of power, ed. A. Guinote. New York: Guilford Press.
Boesch, C. 1991. The effects of leopard predation on grouping patterns in forest chimpanzees. Behaviour 117:220–241.
Boesch, C., and Boesch-Achermann, H. 1991. Dim forest, bright chimps. Natural History 9:50–56.
———. 2000. The chimpanzees of the Taï forest: Behavioural ecology and evolution. New York: Oxford University Press.
Bogardus, E. S. 1933. A social distance scale. Sociology and Social Research 17:265–271.
Bowles, S. 2006. Group competition, reproductive leveling, and the evolution of human altruism. Science 314:1569–1572.
———. Did warfare among ancestral hunter-gatherers affect the evolution of human social behaviors? Science 324:1293–1298.
Bowles, S., and Gintis, H. 2004. The evolution of strong reciprocity: Cooperation in heterogeneous populations. Theoretical Population Biology 65:17–28.
———. 2011. A cooperative species: Human reciprocity and its evolution. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Boyd, R., Gintis, H., Bowles, S., and Richerson, P. J. 2003. The evolution of altruistic punishment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100:3531–3535.
Boyd, R., and Richerson, P. J. 1985. Culture and the evolutionary process. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
———. 1992. Punishment allows the evolution of cooperation or anything else in sizable groups. Ethology and Sociobiology 13:171–195.
Breasted, J. H. 1933. The dawn of conscience. New York: Scribner’s.
Briggs, J. L. 1970. Never in anger: Portrait of an Eskimo family. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
———. 1982. Living dangerously: The contradictory foundations of value in Canadian Inuit society. In Politics and history in band societies, eds. E. Leacock and R. Lee. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
———. 1994. “Why don’t you kill your baby brother?” The dynamics of peace in Canadian Inuit camps. In The anthropology of peace and nonviolence, eds. L. E. Sponsel and T. Gregor. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
———. 1998. Inuit morality play: The emotional education of a three-year-old. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Brosnan, S. F. 2006. Nonhuman species’ reactions to inequity and their implications for fairness. Social Justice Research 19:153–185.
Brown, D. 1991. Human universals. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Brown, S. L., Nesse, R. M., Vinokur, A. D., and Smith, D. M. 2003. Providing social support may be more beneficial than receiving it: Results from a prospective study of mortality. Psychological Science 14:320–327.
Bunn, H. T., and Ezzo, J. A. 1993. Hunting and scavenging by Plio-Pleistocene hominids: Nutritional constraints, archaeological patterns, and behavioural implications. Journal of Archaeological Science 20:365–398.
Burch Jr., E. S. 2005. Alliance and conflict: The world system of the Iñupiaq Eskimos. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Burroughs, W. J. 2005. Climate change in prehistory: The end of the reign of chaos. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Byrne, R. W. 1993. Empathy in primate social manipulation and communication: A precursor to ethical behaviour. In Biological evolution and the emergence of ethical conduct, ed. G. Thines, Bruxelles: Académie Royale de Belgique.
Byrne, R. W., and J. M. Byrne 1988. Leopard killers of Mahale. Natural History 97:22–26.
Campbell, D. T. 1965. Variation and selective retention in socio-cultural evolution. In Social change in developing areas, eds. H. R. Barringer, B. I. Blanksten, and R. W. Mack. Cambridge, MA: Schenkman.
———. 1972. On the genetics of altruism and the counter-hedonic component of human culture. Journal of Social Issues 28:21–37.
———. 1975. On the conflicts between biological and social evolution and between psychology and moral tradition. American Psychologist 30:1103–1126.
Cantrell, P. J. 1994. Family violence and incest in Appalachia. Journal of the Appalachian Studies Association 6:39–47.
Casimir, M. J., and Schnegg, M. 2002. Shame across cultures: The evolution, ontogeny, and function of a “moral emotion.” In Between culture and biology: Perspectives on ontogenetic development, eds. H. Keller, Y. H. Poortinga, and A. Scholmerich. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., and Edwards, A. W. F. 1967. Phylogenetic analysis: Models and estimation procedures. Evolution 32:550–570.
Choi, J.-K., and Bowles, S. 2007. The coevolution of parochial altruism and war. Science 26:636–640.
Coser, L. 1956. The functions of social conflict. New York: Free Press.
Cosmides, L., Tooby, J., Fiddick, L., and Bryant, G. A. 2005. Detecting cheaters. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 9:505–506.
Cummins, D. D. 1999. Cheater detection is modified by social rank: The impact of dominance on the evolution of cognitive functions. Evolution and Human Behavior 20:229–248.
Damasio, A. R. 2002. The neural basis of social behavior: Ethical implications. Paper presented at the conference Neuroethics: Mapping the Field, San Francisco, California, May 13–14.
Damasio, H., Grabowski, T., Frank, R., Galaburda, A. M., and Damasio, A. R. 1994. The return of Phineas Gage: Clues about the brain from the skull of a famous patient. Science 264:1102–1105.
Darwin, C. 1859. On the origin of species. London: John Murray.
———. 1865. The expression of the emotions in man and animals. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
———. 1982 (1871). The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Dawkins, R. 1976. The selfish gene. New York: Oxford University Press.
Dewey, J. 1934. Art as experience. New York: Minton, Balch.
Diamond, J. 1992. The third chimpanzee: The evolution and future of the human animal. New York: Harper Perennial.
Draper, P. 1978. The learning environment for aggression and anti-social behavior among the !Kung. In Learning non-aggression: The experience of nonliterate societies, ed. A. Montagu. New York: Oxford University Press.
Dubreuil, B. 2010. Paleolithic public goods games: Why human culture and cooperation did not evolve in one step. Biology and Philosophy 25:53–73.
Dunbar, R. I. M. 1996. Grooming, gossip, and the evolution of language. London: Faber and Faber.
Durham, W. H. 1991. Coevolution: Genes, culture, and human diversity. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Durkheim, É. 1933. The division of labor in society. New York: Free Press.
Dyson-Hudson, R., and Smith, E. A. 1978. Human territoriality: An ecological reassessment. American Anthropologist 80:21–41.
Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I. 1982. Warfare, man’s indoctrinability, and group selection. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 60:177–198.
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A. and Spinrad, T. L. 2006. Prosocial development. In, Handbook of child psychology, Volume 3: Social, personal, and personality development, ed. N. Eisenberg, New York: Wiley.
Eldredge, N. 1971. The allopatric model and phylogeny in Paleozoic invertebrates. Evolution 25:156–167.
Elkin, A. P. 1994. Aboriginal men of high degree: Initiation and sorcery in the world’s oldest tradition. Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions.
Ellis, L. 1995. Dominance and reproductive success among nonhuman animals: A cross-species comparison. Ethology and Sociobiology 16:257–333.
Erdal, D., and Whiten, A. 1994. On human egalitarianism: An evolutionary product of Machiavellian status escalation? Current Anthropology 35:175–184.
Faulkner, W. 1954. A fable. New York: Random House.
Fehr, E. 2004. Don’t lose your reputation. Nature 432:449–450.
&nb
sp; Fehr, E., Bernhard, H. and Rockenbach, B. 2008. Egalitarianism in young children. Nature 454:1079–1084.
Fehr, E., and Gächter, S. 2002. Altruistic punishment in humans. Nature 415:137–140.
———. 2004. Reply to Fowler et al.: Egalitarian motive and altruistic punishment. Nature 433:E1–E2.
Fisher, R. A. 1930. The genetical theory of natural selection. New York: Dover.
Flack, J. C., and de Waal, F. B. M. 2000. “Any animal whatever”: Darwinian building blocks of morality in monkeys and apes. Journal of Consciousness Studies 7:1–29.
Fleagle, J. G., and Gilbert, C. C. 2008. Modern human origins in Africa. Evolutionary Anthropology 17:1–2.
Fouts, R., with Mills, S. T. 1997. Next of kin: My conversations with chimpanzees. New York: Avon.
Frank, R. H. 1988. Passions within reason: The strategic role of the emotions. New York: Norton.
Frank, S. A. 1995. Mutual policing and repression of competition in the evolution of cooperative groups. Nature 377:520–522.
Freud, S. 1918. Totem and taboo: Resemblances between the psychic lives of savages and neurotics. Trans. A. A. Brill. New York: Random House.
Fry, D. P. 2000. Conflict management in cross-cultural perspective. In Natural conflict resolution, eds. F. Aureli and F. B. M. de Waal. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Furíuchi, Takeshi 2011. Female contributions to the peaceful nature of bonobo society. Evolutionary Anthropology 20:131–142.
Gallup, G. G. J., Anderson, J. R., and Shillito, D. J. 2002. The mirror test. In The cognitive animal: Empirical and theoretical perspectives on animal cognition, eds. M. Bekoff, C. Allen, and G. Burghardt. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Gardner, B. T., and Gardner, R. A. 1994. Development of phrases in the utterances of children and cross-fostered chimpanzees. In The ethological roots of culture, eds. R. A. Gardner, B. T. Gardner, B. Chiarelli, and F. X. Plooj. London: Kluwer Academic.
Ghiselin, M. T. 1974. The economy of nature and the evolution of sex. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Moral Origins Page 41