by Sonia Shah
60. Wenjun Ma, Robert E. Kahn, and Juergen A. Richt, “The Pig as a Mixing Vessel for Influenza Viruses: Human and Veterinary Implications,” Journal of Molecular and Genetic Medicine 3, no. 1 (2009): 158.
61. Davis, The Monster at Our Door, 17.
62. Mindi Schneider, “Feeding China’s Pigs: Implications for the Environment, China’s Smallholder Farmers and Food Security,” Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, May 2011.
63. S. McOrist, K. Khampee, and A. Guo, “Modern Pig Farming in the People’s Republic of China: Growth and Veterinary Challenges,” Revue Scientifique et Technique (International Office of Epizootics) 30, no. 3 (2011): 961–68.
64. Qiyun Zhu et al., “A Naturally Occurring Deletion in Its NS Gene Contributes to the Attenuation of an H5N1 Swine Influenza Virus in Chickens,” Journal of Virology 82, no. 1 (2008): 220–28.
65. Michael Osterholm, “This Year, It Seems, It’s ‘Risk On’ with Swine Flu,” StarTribune (Minneapolis), Aug. 26, 2012.
66. Department of Health and Human Services, “H3N2v,” flu.gov/about_the_flu/h3n2v.
67. Maura Lerner and Curt Brown, “Will New Flu Strain Close the Swine Barn at Minnesota State Fair?” StarTribune, Aug. 21, 2012.
68. Di Liu et al., “Origin and Diversity of Novel Avian Influenza A H7N9 Viruses Causing Human Infection: Phylogenetic, Structural, and Coalescent Analyses,” The Lancet 381, no. 9881 (2013): 1926–32; Rongbao Gao et al., “Human Infection with a Novel Avian-Origin Influenza A (H7N9) Virus,” The New England Journal of Medicine 368, no. 20 (2013): 1888–97; Yu Chen et al., “Human Infections with the Emerging Avian Influenza A H7N9 Virus from Wet Market Poultry: Clinical Analysis and Characterisation of Viral Genome,” The Lancet 381, no. 9881 (2013): 1916–25; Hongjie Yu et al., “Effect of Closure of Live Poultry Markets on Poultry-to-Person Transmission of Avian Influenza A H7N9 Virus: An Ecological Study,” The Lancet 383, no. 9916 (2014): 541–48; Tokiko Watanabe et al., “Pandemic Potential of Avian Influenza A (H7N9) Viruses,” Trends in Microbiology 22, no. 11 (2014): 623–31.
5. CORRUPTION
1. Hewlett and Hewlett, Ebola, Culture, and Politics, 44–45.
2. Ernst Fehr, Urs Fischbacher, and Simon Gächter, “Strong Reciprocity, Human Cooperation, and the Enforcement of Social Norms,” Human Nature 13, no. 1 (2002): 1–25; Eric Michael Johnson, “Punishing Cheaters Promotes the Evolution of Cooperation,” The Primate Diaries (Scientific American blog), Aug. 16, 2012.
3. Koeppel, Water for Gotham, 80; Beatrice G. Reubens, “Burr, Hamilton and the Manhattan Company: Part I: Gaining the Charter,” Political Science Quarterly 72, no. 4 (1957): 578–607; Solomon, Water, 254–55; Fairmount Water Works Interpretive Center, fairmountwaterworks.org.
4. Blake, Water for the Cities, 48, 143.
5. David O. Stewart, “The Perils of Nonpartisanship: The Case of Aaron Burr,” The Huffington Post, Sept. 14, 2011.
6. Koeppel, Water for Gotham, 36.
7. Reubens, “Burr, Hamilton and the Manhattan Company: Part I.”
8. Koeppel, Water for Gotham, 82–83.
9. Blake, Water for the Cities, 73.
10. Koeppel, Water for Gotham, 87.
11. Beatrice G. Reubens, “Burr, Hamilton and the Manhattan Company: Part II: Launching a Bank,” Political Science Quarterly 73, no. 1 (1958): 100–125.
12. Blake, Water for the Cities, 60.
13. Reubens, “Burr, Hamilton and the Manhattan Company: Part II.”
14. Koeppel, Water for Gotham, 87.
15. Blake, Water for the Cities, 106.
16. Reubens, “Burr, Hamilton and the Manhattan Company: Part II.”
17. Subhabrata Bobby Banerjee, “Corporate Social Responsibility: The Good, the Bad and the Ugly,” Critical Sociology 34, no. 1 (2008): 51–79.
18. Blake, Water for the Cities, 102.
19. Purchasing power of $9,000 in 1800 is equal to $167,445 in current dollars, according to “Historical Currency Conversions,” http://futureboy.us/fsp/dollar.fsp?quantity=9000¤cy=dollars&fromYear=1800; Koeppel, Water for Gotham, 100.
20. Reubens, “Burr, Hamilton and the Manhattan Company: Part I.”
21. Koeppel, Water for Gotham, 99.
22. Reubens, “Burr, Hamilton and the Manhattan Company: Part I.”
23. “The History of JPMorgan Chase & Co.,” www.jpmorganchase.com/corporate/About-JPMC/jpmorgan-history.
24. Blake, Water for the Cities, 68.
25. Melosi, The Sanitary City, 16.
26. Blake, Water for the Cities, 77.
27. Howard Markel, When Germs Travel: Six Major Epidemics That Have Invaded America Since 1900 and the Fears They Have Unleashed (New York: Pantheon, 2004), 51.
28. Frank M. Snowden, Naples in the Time of Cholera, 1884–1911 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 80.
29. Ibid., 80–81.
30. Delaporte, Disease and Civilization, 194.
31. Duffy, A History of Public Health, 119.
32. Ibid., 134.
33. Chambers, The Conquest of Cholera, 105.
34. Erwin H. Ackerknecht, “Anticontagionism Between 1821 and 1867,” International Journal of Epidemiology 38, no. 1 (2009): 7–21.
35. Delaporte, Disease and Civilization, 140.
36. Ackerknecht, “Anticontagionism Between 1821 and 1867.”
37. Manley, “Letters addressed to the Board of Health.”
38. Confusingly, these two schools of thought about disease causation were defined as “infection” on one hand and “contagion” on the other. An infection, from the Latin inficere, “to stain,” was a disease that traveled in stinky airs, staining the body with sickness the way newly developed and highly odoriferous chemical dyes stained fabric. The older concept of “contagion” referred to diseases that spread from person to person, like a seed passed from plant to plant. The term derives from the Latin for “contact with filth.” Delaporte, Disease and Civilization, 182; Snowden, Naples in the Time of Cholera, 68.
39. Rosenberg, The Cholera Years, 41.
40. Duffy, A History of Public Health, 161, 330–31.
41. Rosenberg, The Cholera Years, 104; Echenberg, Africa in the Time of Cholera, 76; Duffy, A History of Public Health, 166.
42. Tuite, Chan, and Fisman, “Cholera, Canals, and Contagion.”
43. Ibid.
44. Transactions of the Medical Society of the State of New York, vol. 1 (Albany, 1833).
45. Rosenberg, The Cholera Years, 98; Delaporte, Disease and Civilization, 111.
46. Percy, “Erie Canal.”
47. Chambers, The Conquest of Cholera, 39.
48. Rosenberg, The Cholera Years, 20, 26.
49. The Cholera Bulletin, vol. 1, nos. 2 and 3, 1832.
50. Rosenberg, The Cholera Years, 25.
51. Snowden, Naples in the Time of Cholera, 197–98, 301–309, 316–57.
52. Davis, The Monster at Our Door, 69–70.
53. Richard Wenzel, “International Perspectives on Infection Control in Healthcare Institutions,” International Conference on Emerging Infectious Diseases, Atlanta, GA, March 12, 2012.
54. Davis, The Monster at Our Door, 69–75.
55. Juan O. Tamayo, “Cuba Stays Silent About Deadly Cholera Outbreak,” The Miami Herald, Dec. 8, 2012.
56. George, The Big Necessity, 213.
57. Jennifer Yang, “How Medical Sleuths Stopped a Deadly New SARS-like Virus in Its Tracks,” Toronto Star, Oct. 21, 2012.
58. Tom Clark, “Drug Resistant Superbug Threatens UK Hospitals,” Channel 4 News, Oct. 28, 2010.
59. Interview with Timothy Walsh, Dec. 21, 2011.
60. www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/221/47211.html.
61. Patricia Cohen, “Oxfam Study Finds Richest 1% Is Likely to Control Half of Global Wealth by 2016,” The New York Times, Jan. 19, 2015.
62. Alexander Fleming, “Penicillin,” Nobel lecture, Dec. 11, 1945, www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1945/fleming-lecture.pdf.
63. Spellberg, “Antimicrobial Resistance.”
64. Center for Veterinary Medicine, “Summary Report on Antimicrobials Sold or Distributed for Use in Food-Producing Animals,” FDA, Sept. 2014.
65. Walsh and Toleman, “The New Medical Challenge.”
66. Clark, “Drug Resistant Superbug Threatens UK Hospitals”; Global Antibiotic Resistance Partnership (GARP)-India Working Group, “Rationalizing Antibiotic Use to Limit Antibiotic Resistance in India,” The Indian Journal of Medical Research (Sept. 2011): 281–94.
67. D. M. Livermore, “Has the Era of Untreatable Infections Arrived?” The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 64, supp. 1 (2009): i29–i36; T. R. Walsh, “Emerging Carbapenemases: A Global Perspective,” International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents 36 supp. 3 (2010): s8–s14.
68. Washer, Emerging Infectious Diseases; David and Daum, “Community-Associated Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus”; McKenna, Superbug, 160.
69. Drexler, Secret Agents, 152–54.
70. Sara Reardon, “FDA Institutes Voluntary Rules on Farm Antibiotics,” Nature News, Dec. 11, 2013.
71. McKenna, Superbug, 166.
72. Sara Reardon, “White House Takes Aim at Antibiotic Resistance,” Nature News, Sept. 18, 2014.
73. Livermore, “Has the Era of Untreatable Infections Arrived?”
74. Michelle Bahrain et al., “Five Cases of Bacterial Endocarditis After Furunculosis and the Ongoing Saga of Community-Acquired Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infections,” Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases 38, no. 8 (2006): 702–707.
75. G. R. Nimmo, “USA300 Abroad: Global Spread of a Virulent Strain of Community-Associated Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus,” Clinical Microbiology and Infection 18, no. 8 (2012): 725–34.
76. David and Daum, “Community-Associated Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus.”
77. Bahrain, “Five Cases of Bacterial Endocarditis.”
78. Livermore, “Has the Era of Untreatable Infections Arrived?”
79. Pollack, “Looking for a Superbug Killer.”
80. McKenna, “The Enemy Within.”
81. Peter Utting et al., “UN-Business Partnerships: Whose Agenda Counts?” Transnational Associations, Dec. 8, 2000, 18.
82. J. Patrick Vaughan et al., “WHO and the Effects of Extrabudgetary Funds: Is the Organization Donor Driven?” Health Policy and Planning 11, no. 3 (1996); World Health Organization, “Programme Budget 2014–2015,” www.who.int, May 24, 2013.
83. Sheri Fink, “WHO Leader Describes the Agency’s Ebola Operations,” The New York Times, Sept. 4, 2014.
84. Stuckler et al., “WHO’s Budgetary Allocations and Burden of Disease: A Comparative Analysis,” The Lancet 372 (2008): 9649.
85. Buse et al., “Public-Private Health Partnerships: A Strategy for WHO,” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 79, no. 8 (2001): 748–54.
86. Maria Cheng and Raphael Satter, “Emails Show the World Health Organization Intentionally Delayed Calling Ebola a Public Health Emergency,” Associated Press, March 20, 2015; Sarah Boseley, “World Health Organization Admits Botching Response to Ebola Outbreak,” The Guardian, Oct. 17, 2014.
87. Andrew Bowman, “The Flip Side to Bill Gates’ Charity Billions,” New Internationalist, April 2012.
88. Sonia Shah, “Guerrilla War on Malaria,” Le Monde Diplomatique, April 2011.
89. Some experts have raised questions about the Gates Foundation’s investments in processed food and pharmaceutical companies. David Stuckler, Sanjay Basu, and Martin McKee, “Global Health Philanthropy and Institutional Relationships: How Should Conflicts of Interest be Addressed?” PLoS Medicine 8, no. 4 (2011): e1001020.
6. BLAME
1. Dan Coughlin, “WikiLeaks Haiti: US Cables Paint Portrait of Brutal, Ineffectual and Polluting UN Force,” The Nation, Oct. 6, 2011.
2. Kathie Klarreich, “Will the United Nations’ Legacy in Haiti Be All About Scandal?” The Christian Science Monitor, June 13, 2012.
3. “Fearful Crowds Wreck Clinic as Panic over Cholera Grows,” The Times (London), Oct. 29, 2010.
4. “Oxfam Workers Flee Riot-Torn Cholera City as Disease Spreads Across Border,” The Times (London), Nov. 17, 2010.
5. Samuel Cohn, “Pandemics: Waves of Disease, Waves of Hate from the Plague of Athens to AIDS,” Historical Research 85, no. 230 (2012): 535–55.
6. Susan Sontag, Illness as Metaphor and AIDS and Its Metaphors (New York: Macmillan, 2001), 40–41.
7. Cohn, “Pandemics.”
8. United Nations Senior Advisory Group, “Report of the Senior Advisory Group on Rates of Reimbursement to Troop-Contributing Countries and Other Related Issues,” Oct. 11, 2012.
9. Zachary K. Rothschild et al., “A Dual-Motive Model of Scapegoating: Displacing Blame to Reduce Guilt or Increase Control,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 102, no. 6 (2012): 1148.
10. Daniel Sullivan et al., “An Existential Function of Enemyship: Evidence That People Attribute Influence to Personal and Political Enemies to Compensate for Threats to Control,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 98, no. 3 (2010): 434–49.
11. Rothschild, “A Dual-Motive Model of Scapegoating.”
12. Neel L. Burton, Hide and Seek: The Psychology of Self-Deception (Oxford: Acheron Press, 2012).
13. Attila Pók, “Atonement and Sacrifice: Scapegoats in Modern Eastern and Central Europe,” East European Quarterly 32, no. 4 (1998): 531.
14. Snowden, Naples in the Time of Cholera, 151.
15. Rosenberg, The Cholera Years, 33.
16. William J. Callahan, Church, Politics, and Society in Spain, 1750–1874 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984).
17. Rosenberg, The Cholera Years, 135.
18. Chambers, The Conquest of Cholera, 41.
19. Percy, “Erie Canal.”
20. Rosenberg, The Cholera Years, 62–63.
21. William Watson, “The Sisters of Charity, the 1832 Cholera Epidemic in Philadelphia, and Duffy’s Cut,” U.S. Catholic Historian 27, no. 4 (Fall 2009): 1–16; Dan Barry, “With Shovels and Science, a Grim Story Is Told,” The New York Times, March 24, 2013.
22. Barry, “With Shovels and Science.”
23. W. Omar, “The Mecca Pilgrimage,” Postgraduate Medical Journal 28, no. 319 (1952): 269.
24. M. C. Low, “Empire and the Hajj: Pilgrims, Plagues, and Pan-Islam Under British Surveillance, 1865–1908,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 40, no. 2 (2008): 1–22.
25. F. E. Peters, The Hajj: The Muslim Pilgrimage to Mecca and the Holy Places (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994).
26. Valeska Huber, “The Unification of the Globe by Disease? The International Sanitary Conferences on Cholera, 1851–1894,” The Historical Journal 49, no. 02 (2006): 453.
27. Low, “Empire and the Hajj.”
28. Echenberg, Africa in the Time of Cholera, 37.
29. Harriet Moore, “Contagion from Abroad: U.S. Press Framing of Immigrants and Epidemics, 1891 to 1893” (master’s thesis, Georgia State University, Department of Communications, 2008), 1–113.
30. Howard Markel, Quarantine! East European Jewish Immigrants and the New York City Epidemics of 1892 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 111–19.
31. Cohn, “Pandemics”; Rosenberg, The Cholera Years, 67.
32. “Death and Disbelievers,” The Economist, Aug. 2, 2014; “Ebola: Guineans Riot in Nzerekore over Disinfectant,” BBC News Africa, Aug. 29, 2014; Abby Phillip, “Eight Dead in Attack on Ebola Team in Guinea,” The Washington Post, Sept. 28, 2014; Terrence McCoy, “Why the Brutal Murder of Several Ebola Workers May Hint at More Violence to Com
e,” The Washington Post, Sept. 19, 2014.
33. Laurie Garrett, The Coming Plague: Newly Emerging Diseases in a World out of Balance (New York: Macmillan, 1994), 352.
34. Sonia Shah, The Body Hunters: Testing New Drugs on the World’s Poorest Patients (New York: New Press, 2012), 104.
35. Pride Chigwedere et al., “Estimating the Lost Benefits of Antiretroviral Drug Use in South Africa,” JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 49, no. 4 (2008): 410–15.
36. Gregory M. Herek and Eric K. Glunt, “An Epidemic of Stigma: Public Reactions to AIDS,” American Psychologist 43, no. 11 (1988): 886.
37. Gregory M. Herek, “AIDS and Stigma,” American Behavioral Scientist 42, no. 7 (1999): 1106–16; Mirko D. Grmek, History of AIDS: Emergence and Origin of a Modern Pandemic (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990); Paul Farmer, “Social Inequalities and Emerging Infectious Diseases,” Emerging Infectious Diseases 2, no. 4 (1996): 259.
38. Edwidge Danticat, “Don’t Let New AIDS Study Scapegoat Haitians,” The Progressive, Nov. 7, 2007.
39. Washer, Emerging Infectious Diseases, 131–32.
40. Richard Preston, “West Nile Mystery,” The New Yorker, Oct. 18, 1999.
41. Ibid.
42. “Chinese Refugees Face SARS Discrimination,” CBC News, April 5, 2003; “China Syndrome,” The Economist, April 10, 2003.
43. “Chinese Refugees Face SARS Discrimination”; “China Syndrome.”
44. Chinese Canadian National Council—National Office, “Yellow Peril Revisited: Impact of SARS on the Chinese and Southeast Asian Communities,” June 2004.
45. Robert Samuels Morello, “At Rock Creek Park, Harvesting Deer and Hard Feelings,” The Washington Post, March 30, 2013.
46. “Are Deer the Culprit in Lyme Disease?” The New York Times, July 29, 2009.
47. Pam Belluck, “Tick-Borne Illnesses Have Nantucket Considering Some Deer-Based Solutions,” The New York Times, Sept. 6, 2009.
48. Leslie Lake, “Former Norwalk Man Hunts Deer in New Reality Television Show,” The Hour, April 21, 2013.
49. Ernesto Londo, “Egypt’s Garbage Crisis Bedevils Morsi,” The Washington Post, Aug. 27, 2012; “Swine Flu Pig Cull Destroys Way of Life for City’s Coptic Rubbish Collectors,” The Times (London), June 6, 2009; “For Egypt’s Christians, Pig Cull Has Lasting Effects,” The Christian Science Monitor, Sept. 3, 2009; “New Film Reveals the Story of Egyptian Trash Collectors,” Waste & Recycling News, Jan. 23, 2012; “Copts Between the Rock of Islamism and a Hard Place,” The Times (London), Nov. 14, 2009; Michael Slackman, “Belatedly, Egypt Spots Flaws in Wiping Out Pigs,” The New York Times, Sept. 19, 2009; “President Under Pressure to Solve Cairo’s Trash Problems,” The New Zealand Herald, Sept. 3, 2012.