by Sonia Shah
30. J. P. Guthmann, “Epidemic Cholera in Latin America: Spread and Routes of Transmission,” The Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 98, no. 6 (1995): 419.
31. Jazel Dolores and Karla J. F. Satchell, “Analysis of Vibrio cholerae: Genome Sequences Reveals Unique rtxA Variants in Environmental Strains and an rtxA-Null Mutation in Recent Altered El Tor Isolates,” mBio 4, no. 2 (2013); Ashrafus Safa, G. Balakrish Nair, and Richard Y. C. Kong, “Evolution of New Variants of Vibrio cholerae O1,” Trends in Microbiology 18, no. 1 (2010): 46–54.
32. A. K. Siddique et al., “El Tor Cholera with Severe Disease: A New Threat to Asia and Beyond,” Epidemiology and Infection 138, no. 3 (2010): 347–52.
33. R. Piarroux and B. Faucher, “Cholera Epidemics in 2010: Respective Roles of Environment, Strain Changes, and Human-Driven Dissemination,” Clinical Microbiology and Infection 18, no. 3 (2012): 231–38.
34. Deborah Jenson et al., “Cholera in Haiti and Other Caribbean Regions, 19th Century,” Emerging Infectious Diseases 17, no. 11 (Nov. 2011).
35. Interview with Anwar Huq, Jan. 25, 2011.
36. Interview with Rita Colwell; “The United Nations’ Duty in Haiti’s Cholera Outbreak,” The Washington Post, Aug. 11, 2013.
37. Carlos Seas et al., “New Insights on the Emergence of Cholera in Latin America During 1991: the Peruvian Experience,” American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 62, no. 4 (2000): 513–17.
38. Luigi Vezzulli et al., “Long-Term Effects of Ocean Warming on the Prokaryotic Community: Evidence from the Vibrios,” The ISME Journal 6, no. 1 (2012): 21–30.
39. Peter Andrey Smith, “Sea Sick,” Modern Farmer, Sept. 11, 2013.
40. Colwell, “Global Climate and Infectious Disease.”
41. Alexander, “An Overview of the Epidemiology of Avian Influenza.”
42. Drexler, Secret Agents, 65.
43. Joan Brunkard, “Climate Change Impacts on Waterborne Diseases Outbreaks,” International Conference on Emerging Infectious Diseases, Atlanta, GA, March 12, 2012; Violeta Trinidad Pardío Sedas, “Influence of Environmental Factors on the Presence of Vibrio cholerae in the Marine Environment: A Climate Link,” The Journal of Infection in Developing Countries 1, no. 3 (2007): 224–41.
44. Jonathan E. Soverow et al., “Infectious Disease in a Warming World: How Weather Influenced West Nile Virus in the United States (2001–2005),” Environmental Health Perspectives 117, no. 7 (2009): 1049–52.
45. Peter Daszak, “Fostering Advances in Interdisciplinary Climate Science,” lecture, Arthur M. Sackler Colloquia of the National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, March 31–April 2, 2011.
46. S. Mistry and A. Moreno-Valdez, “Climate Change and Bats: Vampire Bats Offer Clues to the Future,” Bats 26, no. 2 (Summer 2008).
47. Lars Eisen and Chester G. Moore, “Aedes (Stegomyia) aegypti in the Continental United States: a Vector at the Cool Margin of Its Geographic Range,” Journal of Medical Entomology 50, no. 3 (2013): 467–78; Diana Marcum, “California Residents Cautioned to Look Out for Yellow Fever Mosquito,” Los Angeles Times, Oct. 20, 2013.
48. D. Roiz et al., “Climatic Factors Driving Invasion of the Tiger Mosquito (Aedes albopictus) into New Areas of Trentino, Northern Italy,” PLoS ONE 6, no. 4 (April 15, 2011): e14800.
49. Laura Jensen, “What Does Climate Change and Deforestation Mean for Lyme Disease in the 21st Century?” Tick Talk, an investigative project on Lyme disease, SUNY New Paltz.
50. Andrew Nikiforuk, “Beetlemania,” New Scientist, Nov. 5, 2011.
51. M. C. Fisher et al., “Emerging Fungal Threats to Animal, Plant and Ecosystem Health,” Nature 484 (April 2012): 186–94.
52. Ibid.
53. Arturo Casadevall, “Fungi and the Rise of Mammals,” PLoS Pathogens 8, no. 8 (2012): e1002808.
54. Arturo Casadevall, “Thoughts on the Origin of Microbial Virulence,” International Conference on Emerging Infectious Diseases, Atlanta, GA, March 13, 2012.
55. Letter from Larry Madoff to Pro-MED mail subscribers, June 5, 2012.
56. Fisher, “Emerging Fungal Threats to Animal, Plant and Ecosystem Health.”
9. THE LOGIC OF PANDEMICS
1. Markus G. Weinbauer and Fereidoun Rassoulzadegan, “Extinction of Microbes: Evidence and Potential Consequences,” Endangered Species Research 3, no. 2 (2007): 205–15; Gerard Tortora, Berdelle Funke, and Christine Case, Microbiology: An Introduction, 10th ed. (San Francisco: Pearson Education, 2010).
2. Kat McGowan, “How Life Made the Leap from Single Cells to Multicellular Animals,” Wired, Aug. 1, 2014.
3. Blood samples taken from subjects who viewed pictures of people sneezing or with pox lesions had 23.6 percent more interleukin-6 than samples taken from subjects who viewed pictures of pointed guns and furniture. C. L. Fincher and R. Thornhill, “Parasite-Stress Promotes In-Group Assortative Sociality: The Cases of Strong Family Ties and Heightened Religiosity,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 35, no. 2 (2012): 61–79.
4. Sabra L. Klein and Randy J. Nelson, “Influence of Social Factors on Immune Function and Reproduction,” Reviews of Reproduction 4, no. 3 (1999): 168–78.
5. Matt Ridley, The Red Queen: Sex and the Evolution of Human Nature (New York: Macmillan, 1994), 80.
6. Michael A. Brockhurst, “Sex, Death, and the Red Queen,” Science, July 8, 2011.
7. Makoto Takeo et al., “Wnt Activation in Nail Epithelium Couples Nail Growth to Digit Regeneration,” Nature 499, no. 7457 (2013): 228–32.
8. Joshua Mitteldorf, “Evolutionary Origins of Aging,” in Gregory M. Fahy et al., eds., The Future of Aging: Pathways to Human Life Extension (Dordrecht: Springer, 2010).
9. Jerome Wodinsky, “Hormonal Inhibition of Feeding and Death in Octopus: Control by Optic Gland Secretion,” Science 198, no. 4320 (1977): 948–51.
10. Valter D. Longo, Joshua Mitteldorf, and Vladimir P. Skulachev, “Programmed and Altruistic Ageing,” Nature Reviews Genetics 6, no. 11 (2005): 866–72.
11. Interview with Joshua Mitteldorf, Feb. 4, 2015.
12. Catherine Clabby, “A Magic Number? An Australian Team Says It Has Figured Out the Minimum Viable Population for Mammals, Reptiles, Birds, Plants and the Rest,” American Scientist 98 (2010): 24–25.
13. Curtis H. Flather et al., “Minimum Viable Populations: Is There a ‘Magic Number’ for Conservation Practitioners?” Trends in Ecology & Evolution 26, no. 6 (2011): 307–16.
14. According to the adaptive theory of aging, suicide genes are adaptive for groups rather than individuals. The precise evolutionary mechanisms by which so-called group selection could occur are unclear. Joshua Mitteldorf and John Pepper, “Senescence as an Adaptation to Limit the Spread of Disease,” Journal of Theoretical Biology 260, no. 2 (2009): 186–95.
15. Diogo Meyer and Glenys Thomson, “How Selection Shapes Variation of the Human Major Histocompatibility Complex: A Review,” Annals of Human Genetics 65, no. 1 (2001): 1–26.
16. Interview with Glenys Thomson, Feb. 6, 2015; Meyer and Thomson, “How Selection Shapes Variation of the Human Major Histocompatibility Complex.”
17. Ajit Varki, “Human-Specific Changes in Siglec Genes,” video lecture, CARTA: The Genetics of Humanness, April 9, 2011; Darius Ghaderi et al., “Sexual Selection by Female Immunity Against Paternal Antigens Can Fix Loss of Function Alleles,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, no. 43 (2011): 17743–48.
18. Alasdair Wilkins, “How Sugar Molecules Secretly Shaped Human Evolution,” io9, Oct. 10, 2011.
19. Interview with Ajit Varki, Feb. 9, 2015; Bruce Lieberman, “Human Evolution: Details of Being Human,” Nature, July 2, 2008.
20. Kenneth D. Beaman et al., “Immune Etiology of Recurrent Pregnancy Loss and Its Diagnosis,” American Journal of Reproductive Immunology 67, no. 4 (2012): 319–25.
21. Annie N. Samraj et al., “A Red Meat–Deriv
ed Glycan Promotes Inflammation and Cancer Progression,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112, no. 2 (2015): 542–47.
22. F. B. Piel et al., “Global Epidemiology of Sickle Haemoglobin in Neonates: A Contemporary Geostatistical Model-Based Map and Population Estimates,” The Lancet 381, no. 9861 (Jan. 2013): 142–51.
23. Elinor K. Karlsson, Dominic P. Kwiatkowski, and Pardis C. Sabeti, “Natural Selection and Infectious Disease in Human Populations,” Nature Reviews Genetics 15, no. 6 (2014): 379–93.
24. David J. Anstee, “The Relationship Between Blood Groups and Disease,” Blood 115, no. 23 (2010): 4635–43.
25. Karlsson, Kwiatkowski, and Sabeti, “Natural Selection and Infectious Disease in Human Populations.”
26. Anstee, “The Relationship Between Blood Groups and Disease.”
27. Gregory Demas and Randy Nelson, eds., Ecoimmunology (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 234.
28. Meyer and Thomson, “How Selection Shapes Variation of the Human Major Histocompatibility Complex.”
29. Fincher and Thornhill, “Parasite-Stress Promotes In-Group Assortative Sociality.”
30. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples, 91–92.
31. Fincher and Thornhill, “Parasite-Stress Promotes In-Group Assortative Sociality.”
32. E. Cashdan, “Ethnic Diversity and Its Environmental Determinants: Effects of Climate, Pathogens, and Habitat Diversity,” American Anthropologist 103 (2001): 968–91.
33. Carlos David Navarrete and Daniel M. T. Fessler, “Disease Avoidance and Ethnocentrism: The Effects of Disease Vulnerability and Disgust Sensitivity on Intergroup Attitudes,” Evolution and Human Behavior 27, no. 4 (2006): 270–82.
34. Andrew Spielman and Michael d’Antonio, Mosquito: The Story of Man’s Deadliest Foe (New York: Hyperion, 2002), 49.
35. Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel, 210–11.
36. Sonia Shah, The Fever: How Malaria Has Ruled Humankind for 500,000 Years (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2010), 41–43.
37. R. Thornhill and S. W. Gangestad, “Facial Sexual Dimorphism, Developmental Stability and Susceptibility to Disease in Men and Women,” Evolution and Human Behavior 27 (2006): 131–44.
38. A. Booth and J. Dabbs, “Testosterone and Men’s Marriages,” Social Forces 72 (1993): 463–77.
39. Anthony C. Little, Lisa M. DeBruine, and Benedict C. Jones, “Exposure to Visual Cues of Pathogen Contagion Changes Preferences for Masculinity and Symmetry in Opposite-Sex Faces,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 278, no. 1714 (2011): 2032–39.
40. Meyer and Thomson, “How Selection Shapes Variation of the Human Major Histocompatibility Complex.”
41. Margaret McFall-Ngai et al., “Animals in a Bacterial World, a New Imperative for the Life Sciences,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110, no. 9 (2013): 3229–36; Gerard Eberl, “A New Vision of Immunity: Homeostasis of the Superorganism,” Mucosal Immunology 3, no. 5 (2010): 450–60.
42. John F. Cryan and Timothy G. Dinan, “Mind-Altering Microorganisms: The Impact of the Gut Microbiota on Brain and Behaviour,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 13, no. 10 (2012): 701–12.
43. McGowan, “How Life Made the Leap from Single Cells to Multicellular Animals.”
44. F. Prugnolle et al., “Pathogen-Driven Selection and Worldwide HLA Class I Diversity,” Current Biology 15 (2005): 1022–27.
45. Kenneth Miller, “Archaeologists Find Earliest Evidence of Humans Cooking with Fire,” Discover, May 2013.
46. Christopher Sandom et al., “Global Late Quaternary Megafauna Extinctions Linked to Humans, Not Climate Change,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 281, no. 1787 (June 4, 2014).
10. TRACKING THE NEXT CONTAGION
1. Saeed Ahmed and Dorrine Mendoza, “Ebola Hysteria: An Epic, Epidemic Overreaction,” CNN, Oct. 20, 2014.
2. Reuters, “Kentucky Teacher Resigns Amid Parents’ Ebola Fears: Report,” The Huffington Post, Nov. 3, 2014; Olga Khazan, “The Psychology of Irrational Fear,” The Atlantic, Oct. 31, 2014; Amanda Terkel, “Oklahoma Teacher Will Have to Quarantine Herself After Trip to Ebola-free Rwanda,” The Huffington Post, Oct. 28, 2014; Amanda Cuda and John Burgeson, “Milford Girl in Ebola Scare Wants to Return to School,” www.CTPost.com, Oct. 30, 2014.
3. Matt Byrne, “Maine School Board Puts Teacher on Leave After She Traveled to Dallas,” Portland Press Herald, Oct. 17, 2014.
4. Ahmed and Mendoza, “Ebola Hysteria”; CDC, “It’s Turkey Time: Safely Prepare Your Holiday Meal,” Nov. 25, 2014.
5. Khazan, “The Psychology of Irrational Fear.”
6. Jere Longman, “Africa Cup Disrupted by Ebola Concerns,” The New York Times, Nov. 11, 2014; “The Ignorance Epidemic,” The Economist, Nov. 15, 2014.
7. Eyder Peralta, “Health Care Worker on Cruise Ship Tests Negative for Ebola,” NPR, Oct. 19, 2014.
8. “‘Ebola’ Coffee Cup Puts Plane on Lockdown at Dublin Airport,” RT.com, Oct. 30, 2014.
9. “Ottawa’s Ebola Overkill,” The Globe and Mail, Nov. 3, 2014.
10. Drew Hinshaw and Jacob Bunge, “U.S. Buys Up Ebola Gear, Leaving Little for Africa,” The Wall Street Journal, Nov. 25, 2014.
11. Katie Helper, “More Americans Have Been Married to Kim Kardashian than Have Died from Ebola,” Raw Story, Oct. 22, 2014.
12. H. Rhee and D. J. Cameron, “Lyme Disease and Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Streptococcal Infections (PANDAS): An Overview,” International Journal of General Medicine 5 (2012): 163–74.
13. Jennifer Newman, “Local Lyme Impacts Outdoor Groups and Businesses,” and Zameena Mejia, “On the Trail of De-Railing Lyme,” Tick Talk, State University of New York at New Paltz, 2014.
14. Maria G. Guzman, Mayling Alvarez, and Scott B. Halstead, “Secondary Infection as a Risk Factor for Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever/Dengue Shock Syndrome: An Historical Perspective and Role of Antibody-Dependent Enhancement of Infection,” Archives of Virology 158, no. 7 (2013): 1445–59; “Dengue,” CDC website, June 9, 2014.
15. Sean Kinney, “CDC Errs in Levels of Dengue Cases in Key West,” Florida Keys Keynoter, July 17, 2010.
16. Sean Kinney, “CDC Stands by Key West Dengue-Fever Report,” Florida Keys Keynoter, July 28, 2010.
17. Denise Grady and Catharine Skipp, “Dengue Fever? What About It, Key West Says,” The New York Times, July 24, 2010.
18. Bob LaMendola, “Broward Woman Gets Dengue Fever on Key West Trip,” SunSentinel, July 30, 2010.
19. “Woman in Florida Diagnosed with Cholera,” CNN, Nov. 17, 2010; “Cholera, Diarrhea and Dysentery Update 2011 (23): Haiti, Dominican Republic,” ProMED, July 26, 2011; Juan Tamayo, “Cholera Reportedly Kills 15, Sickens Hundreds in Eastern Cuba,” The Miami Herald, July 6, 2012; Fox News Latino, “Puerto Rico: Cholera, After Affecting Haiti and Dominican Republic, Hits Island,” July 5, 2011; “Shanty Towns and Cholera,” editorial, The Freeport News, Nov. 15, 2012.
20. “Why Pandemic Disease and War are So Similar,” The Economist, March 28, 2015.
21. Deborah A. Adams et al., “Summary of Notifiable Diseases—United States, 2011,” MMWR 60, no. 53 (July 5, 2013): 1–117.
22. Stephen S. Morse, “Public Health Surveillance and Infectious Disease Detection,” Biosecurity and Bioterrorism 10, no. 1 (2012): 6–16.
23. Baize, “Emergence of Zaire Ebola Virus Disease in Guinea.”
24. Norimitsu Onishi, “Empty Ebola Clinics in Liberia Are Seen as Misstep in US Relief Effort,” The New York Times, April 11, 2015.
25. Interview with Leo Poon, Hong Kong, Jan. 2012.
26. Karen J. Monaghan, “SARS: Down but Still a Threat,” in Institute of Medicine, Learning from SARS: Preparing for the Next Disease Outbreak (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2004), 255.
27. Erin Place, “In Light of EEE Death, County Opt
s to Spray,” The Palladium-Times, Aug. 16, 2011.
28. Interview with Ivan Gayton, June 26, 2014.
29. Aleszu Bajak, “Asian Tiger Mosquito Could Expand Painful Caribbean Virus into U.S.,” Scientific American, Aug. 12, 2014; Pan American Health Organization, “Chikungunya: A New Virus in the Region of the Americas,” July 8, 2014.
30. Charles Kenny, “The Ebola Outbreak Shows Why the Global Health System Is Broken,” BusinessWeek, Aug. 11, 2014; Kus, “New Delhi Metallo-ss-lactamase-1”; Interview with Malik Peiris; Davis, The Monster at Our Door, 112.
31. Interview with Leo Poon.
32. USAID, “Emerging Pandemic Threats: Program Overview,” June 2010.
33. Martin Cetron, “Clinician-Based Surveillance Networks Utilizing Travelers as Sentinels for Emerging Infectious Diseases,” International Conference on Emerging Infectious Diseases, Atlanta, GA, March 13, 2012.
34. Interview with James Wilson, July 31, 2013; Wolfe, The Viral Storm, 213; Rodrique Ngowi, “US Bots Flagged Ebola Before Outbreak Announced,” Associated Press, Aug. 9, 2014.
35. Interview with James Wilson; Wolfe, The Viral Storm, 195, 213; Ngowi, “US Bots Flagged Ebola Before Outbreak Announced”; David Braun, “Anatomy of the Discovery of the Deadly Bas-Congo Virus,” National Geographic, Sept. 27, 2012.
36. Gina Kolata, “The New Generation of Microbe Hunters,” The New York Times, Aug. 29, 2011; Jan Semenza, “The Impact of Economic Crises on Communicable Diseases,” International Conference on Emerging Infectious Diseases, Atlanta, GA, March 12, 2012.
37. Larry Brilliant, “My Wish: Help Me Stop Pandemics,” TED, Feb. 2006.
38. Interview with Peter Daszak.
39. Walsh, “Emerging Carbapenemases.”