Slip- and prong-collars can be effective only when the dog is on-leash, and close to the owner (who could therefore just as easily be training the dog using positive reinforcement). Collars that deliver electric shocks allow the pain to be delivered remotely, by radio control. Either the controller can be held by the trainer and the shock timed to immediately follow the undesired behaviour – livestock-chasing is a commonly cited example – or it can take the form of an ‘invisible fence’, a buried wire encircling an area that the dog is to be confined within; if the dog approaches the ‘fence’, the shock is delivered.
There is a long tradition in animal psychology of using mild electric shocks to study the effects of punishment on behaviour, and no doubt under controlled laboratory conditions they do alter an animal’s tendency to behave in a particular way. Dog training is not, however, carried out under controlled laboratory conditions, and so what the dog learns is often not entirely what was intended. For example, research has shown that German shepherd dogs trained to be guard dogs using shock collars were more frightened of their (‘expert’) handlers, even when they were not wearing their collars, than were dogs trained conventionally (using a mixture of reward and punishment).17 It seems very likely that these dogs were associating the shocks with their handlers, as well as with the mistakes the dogs had made that triggered the shocks.
When the shock is not timed properly, the dog’s fear and anxiety may become even worse than this. Owners who believe that dogs can ‘know what they’ve done wrong’ may go on applying the shock even after the dog has stopped performing the undesired behaviour. Even under controlled laboratory conditions, unpredictable electric shock makes animals much more likely to react aggressively, so it is a real possibility that owners who use shock collars without proper technique are setting up their dog for an attack that will condemn it to euthanasia. Cases have been documented in which shocks received from invisible fences apparently caused dogs to launch unprovoked and serious attacks on people.18
The pain from the shock itself has a significant effect on the dog’s welfare, ranging from slight to considerable. This depends on whether the shock is used appropriately or not. Because dogs can habituate to aversive events, for the collar to be effective it is essential to get the level of shock right first time; too weak, and the dog may habituate to the pain, requiring the trainer to increase the shock level in an attempt to get the dog to respond. There is a temptation to apply the maximum available shock right from the start, even though the pain felt by the dog will vary widely, depending on the thickness of its coat, the electrical resistance of its skin and whether its coat is wet or dry. At worst, this can result in immediate discomfort, and then anxiety if the dog cannot predict when the next violent pain to its neck is likely to arrive.
Repeated delivery of electric shocks is likely to lead to serious fear and anxiety. It is unarguable that the shocks must be momentarily painful, otherwise they would not have any effect on behaviour. A single shock delivered at exactly the right moment to suppress undesired behaviour may have only a transitory effect on the dog’s welfare, and, therefore, may be preferable to other, less effective, punishments that have to be delivered repeatedly. However, if the dog receives several shocks and is unable to work out why, its heart rate goes up and its stress hormones increase dramatically; both are indicators that its welfare is being impaired. In the hands of inept operators who do not understand the principles behind their use, or, worse still, are using the collar as an outlet for their own anger that the dog is not doing what it is supposed to, electric shocks may not only upset the dog, but undermine the relationship between the dog and its owner.
Physical punishment can also be used in another way, in which the dog learns to do something that enables it to avoid a painful sensation – as opposed to not doing something to avoid pain, as in the examples so far. The technical term for this is negative reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is the principle underlying training methods that teach the dog to perform a behaviour in order to eliminate pain that is being inflicted by the trainer. One example is a traditional method of teaching young gundogs to retrieve, in which the dog learns to associate the removal of pain with opening its mouth and picking something up. The trainer presents a suitable object – usually a cloth-covered ‘dummy’ – a few inches in front of the dog’s nose while at the same time pinching the dog’s earflap tightly. The dog cries out in pain, opening its mouth and allowing the trainer to insert the dummy into the dog’s open mouth. At that instant, the aversive stimulus (the pain from the pinch) is abruptly stopped. The dog is supposed to learn that picking up the dummy results in the cessation of pain (this is an example of negative reinforcement). In the ‘force-fetch’ method, the dog is additionally beaten with a stick while the ear pinch is being applied – in this case, both are abruptly terminated when the dog performs the desired action.
Force-fetch training. The trainer simultaneously pinches the dog’s ear and beats it with a stick until it opens its mouth above the ‘dummy’.
There is no doubt that both positive punishment and negative reinforcement, if performed skilfully, can be highly effective in the very short term – if we put any ethical considerations to one side, that is, and ignore any long-term damage to the dog–human relationship. Things go wrong, for both dog and owner, when the way that punishment works is not properly understood, or, worse, when punishment is applied as an outlet for the owner’s anger, frustration or embarrassment.
The most serious problem with physical punishment is that it is easily misapplied. As with other kinds of learning, a dog will almost always associate any sudden pain or fear with the event that immediately preceded it. Almost every day, I see owners beating or remonstrating with their dogs for being slow to come back to them. This action usually follows some mildly embarrassing incident that the dog has been involved in, and seems to be, in part, an emotional response from the owners, and in part a sign to anyone watching that they are dissociating themselves from their dog’s behaviour. What are the dogs learning from such incidents? That coming back is (sometimes) a bad idea. Is this going to make them more, or less, attached to their owners? More likely to come back when called the next time, or less? Dogs do not think, ‘I was naughty a minute ago, so I deserve to be punished when I get back to my owner.’ If anything, they think, ‘Sometimes my owner makes a fuss of me when I go back, but sometimes I get hit; I don’t understand.’
In short, punishment is often misused by owners who do not understand how dogs learn. But even if punishment is applied with the correct timing, it is difficult to predict in advance what the dog will associate the punishment with. Will it be the intended event, or will it be the person administering it, or the place in which the punishment happened? One of my colleagues recently found his neighbour’s small terrier wandering in the road. He picked it up and carried it back to the neighbour's house. As he approached she appeared at the door, repeatedly pressing the control for the electric shock collar that the dog was wearing and shouting, ‘Bad dog, bad dog.’ The dog jerked violently every time the shock was applied, growling and snapping in fear. From that day on, the terrier growled whenever anyone it did not know came near – it had learned that unfamiliar people mean inescapable pain.
It is also difficult to get the severity of the punishment right. Typically, owners will gradually escalate the degree of punishment that they use, until they achieve the desired result. Unfortunately, the dog will at the same time be habituating to the punishment, such that the intensity that eventually works (if at all) is much higher than would have been needed if it had been applied correctly in the first place. Contrast this with the use of positive rewards in dog training: if the owner mistakenly gives too much of the reward each time, the value of the reward will merely be somewhat diminished; for example, too big a food reward will just make the dog less hungry. But if a punishment is more intense than necessary, the dog will suffer unnecessarily – and if it is not sufficiently intense to
begin with (due to the owner, understandably, erring on the side of caution) it can lead to escalation and therefore also eventually result in too much being applied.
In fact, a growing body of evidence indicates that in inexpert hands physical punishment is not only likely to harm the dog but is ineffective as well. Two separate surveys of dog owners have revealed that dogs trained with punishment tend to be less obedient and more fearful than those trained with reward. In the first of these, conducted in the United Kingdom,19 364 owners were asked about the training methods that they used for training seven basic tasks, including house-training, coming when called and giving up an object upon command. Vocal punishment was reported by 66 per cent of the respondents, and physical punishment by 12 per cent. Rewards were also commonly used: 60 per cent used verbal praise and 51 per cent used food treats. The owners using rewards reported much greater obedience from their dogs than those using punishment predominantly, whereas those using mainly punishment reported a larger number of behavioural problems, such as barking at people and dogs, fearful behaviour and separation disorders. The other survey, conducted in Austria, has also concluded that frequent use of punishment is associated with high levels of aggression, especially in small dogs.20
Not all punishment is physical, however, even in dog training. Training almost inevitably involves subtler forms of punishment that most owners would not even identify as such. In addition to the physical punishments discussed so far, psychologists also identify a category that they call negative punishment, which involves the removal of some reward that the dog has come to expect will occur under a particular set of circumstances. For example, one way to stop a dog jumping up at people is to always ignore it when it does so. No pain or fear is involved; however, the dog presumably becomes mildly anxious when it finds that its strategy for getting interaction with its owner suddenly no longer works. Some trainers in the United Kingdom regard even this emotional shift as unethical, but, given that even experimental psychologists cannot always determine whether learning is mainly due to negative punishment (brief anxiety that the anticipated reward will not arrive) or to positive reinforcement (joy when it does), it is probably difficult to avoid all occurrences of negative punishment even during everyday interaction with a dog. Perhaps the best compromise is never to use negative punishment on its own, but always to offer the dog a rewarded alternative. In any event, withdrawal of reward, as with all forms of punishment, actually works faster when the dog is given an alternative, positively rewarded, strategy. Such a strategy, for example in cases involving jumping up, might involve making a fuss of the dog only when it is calm.
It is also possible to transfer the negative punishment to a secondary punisher, which is analogous to a secondary reinforcer. In the context of dog training, an arbitrary yet distinctive sound can be used. For this purpose, owners can purchase so-called ‘training discs’,21 but a distinctively uttered word can be just as effective. First, an association is built up between the cue (for example, dropping the training discs on the ground) and a mildly frustrating event (perhaps temporarily removing the dog’s food mid-meal, or offering and then withholding a treat). The cue itself then becomes a secondary punisher, and can be used under other circumstances as well, such as getting the dog to stop barking. As with all punishers, including negative reinforcers, the desired response, such as sitting and not barking, should be rewarded as well (that is, by positive reinforcement).
Punishment, in the psychological sense, is an inescapable component of the dog owner’s armoury of training methods. Today’s most knowledgeable trainers agree that it is in fact impossible to avoid at least some negative punishment (the withholding of a reward that the dog is anticipating) when training a dog. And few would argue that it is unethical to make a dog feel slightly uncomfortable by delaying somewhat a reward it was expecting. (Indeed, in real life this may be virtually unavoidable. Each time owners give a dog a food treat or other reward, they set up expectations that the same reward will appear again when the situation is repeated. If the situation recurs and there is no treat, then the dogs are, technically speaking, being punished.) Many trainers who avoid physical punishment nevertheless use the withholding of reward as a way of modifying behaviour, clearly a very good way of getting and holding a dog’s attention,22 once reward-based training has begun.
It is the use of physical punishment that remains controversial. Traditions die hard, and ‘traditional’ training methods based on physical punishment are still widely employed. One recent US survey of clients at a veterinary behaviour clinic found large numbers of owners using confrontational methods, including ‘hit or kick dog for undesirable behaviour’ (43 per cent), ‘physically force the release of an item from a dog’s mouth’ (39 per cent), ‘alpha roll’ (31 per cent), ‘stare at or stare [dog] down’ (30 per cent), ‘dominance down’ (29 per cent), and ‘grab dog by jowls and shake’ (26 per cent). All of these actions had elicited an aggressive response from at least a quarter of the dogs on which they had been used, indicating that none of them could be regarded as safe.23
The reason for the widespread occurrence of physical punishment was unclear from the research, since few owners in the survey indicated that these techniques had been recommended by dog trainers (although television was the most frequently reported source for the practice of abruptly jabbing the dog in the neck). However, much of the advice reported to have come from trainers did involve the punitive use of collars and leashes, such as prong-collars and forcing-down, which also caused aggressive responses. The survey found no link between aggression and the use of training methods that did not involve physical punishment. Although the majority of the dogs had been brought to the clinic for problems involving aggression, none of the non-aversive, neutral and reward-based interventions that their owners had used produced aggressive responses in more than a tiny fraction of the dogs they had been used on, in stark contrast to the aggression triggered by physical punishments.
Why, therefore, do television companies seem to prefer to publicize methods based on confrontation and punishment? Perhaps because conflict and its dramatic resolution make for compelling entertainment.24 Reward-based methods are slower, if surer, and much less dramatic. If dog-training programmes were regarded as mere entertainment, then none of this would matter very much. But if the use of physical punishment and other techniques that supposedly reduce ‘dominance’ are adopted in good faith by dog owners, problematic behaviours can easily be exacerbated. When such techniques do not work as quickly and effortlessly as the television version seems to promise, there is a risk that owners will escalate the punishment, in the belief that they have not got through to the dog. The result can then be a dog that resorts to aggression because it finds this is the only tactic that gets it noticed. Inept use of reward, by contrast, is only likely to result in an overweight or over-dependent dog, both conditions that, while not exactly desirable, can at least be readily resolved.
Given all the scientific evidence that is piling up against the use of physical punishment in training, the question has to be asked why such methods still remain so popular with owners. The main issue seems to be that dog training originated as a craft, and hence has no clear route for integrating scientific understanding of dogs into its methods. Neither dog training nor the treatment of behavioural disorders in dogs are regulated professions, and so keeping up to date with the latest developments, or indeed getting some kind of formal education in the field, is not legally required. Television companies seem not to value presenters with formal qualifications – for example, neither Cesar Millan nor Victoria Stilwell (whose approaches, it must be said, are very different) mention any academic qualifications on their websites. Increasingly, however, there are moves on both sides of the Atlantic to introduce self-regulation at all levels. The biennial International Veterinary Behavior meetings and the Journal of Veterinary Behavior (neither, despite their names, restricted to veterinarians) are just two of the forums in which new ideas
and research are being exchanged internationally.
As a result of such exchanges, there is a growing feeling that the dog’s supposed drive to ‘dominate’ is, in fact, just a convenient myth for those who wish to continue physically punishing dogs, even though it has been demolished by studies of both wolves and dogs. The wolf’s natural social behaviour is now known to be based on harmonious family loyalties, not on an overwhelming and incessant desire to take control. Could such a desire for control conceivably have been induced in dogs during the process of domestication? It seems much more likely that precisely the opposite must have happened, since dogs that showed a tendency to control their human hosts would have been selected against, deliberately or accidentally. Yet despite all the accumulating evidence, old habits are proving remarkably slow to die, in terms of both training and the perception of dog as wolf.25 Thankfully, there are now some signs that the tide is beginning to turn; for example, some rapport seems to be developing between the old-school and reward-based trainers: Cesar Millan has even asked Ian Dunbar to contribute to his book Cesar’s Rules. 26 The hope is that dogs will soon be universally portrayed as the utterly domesticated animals that they are, not as superficially cute animals disguising demons that lurk within.
5
How Puppies Become Pets
Dogs are not born friendly to humans. No, that’s not a misprint. Dogs are born to become friendly towards people, but this happens only if they meet friendly people while they are still tiny puppies. Scientists have known this for half a century, but the implications are still not universally applied or even widely appreciated. Today, many puppies are still raised for the pet market under impoverished conditions, conditions that predispose them to a life blighted by fear and anxiety, and causing behaviour that will not endear them to their owners or indeed anyone else they come across. Yet all this is entirely preventable.
In Defence of Dogs Page 15