Haiti

  16. Moïse, Constitutions, 1:258–60, 268; for a detailed analysis of the long-term construction of an “authoritarian political habitus” in Haiti, see Robert Fatton Jr., The Roots of Haitian Despotism (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2007).

  17. Moïse, Constitutions, 1:258.

  18. Turnier, Avec Mérisier Jeannis, provides the most detailed local account of the military and political conflicts of this era.

  19. Rémy Bastien, Le paysan haïtien et sa famille: Vallée de Marbial (Paris: Kharthala, 1985), 166.

  20. Brenda Gayle Plummer, Haiti and the United States: The Psychological Moment (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992), 78–79; see also Fatton, Roots, 138–39.

  21. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 356–57; David Nicholls, Haiti in Caribbean Context: Ethnicity, Economy, and Revolt (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1985), 109; François Blancpain, Un siècle de relations financières entre Haïti et la France (1825–1922) (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2001), 81; Fatton, Roots, 138–39.

  22. Moïse, Constitutions, 1:214.

  23. Blancpain, Un siècle, 81–88.

  24. Ibid., 23; François Blancpain, Haïti et les Etats-Unis, 1915–1934: Histoire d’une occupation (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1999), 35. For a detailed examination of state corruption during this period, see Leslie J. R. Péan, Haïti: Économie politique de la corruption, vol. 2: L’état marron (1870–1915) (Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 2005).

  25. Blancpain, Un siècle, 89–103.

  26. Millery Polyné, From Douglass to Duvalier: U.S. African Americans, Haiti and Pan Americanism, 1870–1964 (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2010), 35; Montague, Haiti, 94.

  27. Polyné, Douglass to Duvalier, 25–26, 38.

  28. Rayford W. Logan, Haiti and the Dominican Republic (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), 39–46; Polyné, Douglass to Duvalier, 34.

  29. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 345–46.

  30. Logan, Haiti and the Dominican Republic, 45; Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 352; Polyné, Douglass to Duvalier, 35. For the newspaper report, see New York Herald, February 2, 1869.

  31. Montague, Haiti, 107–10; Polyné, Douglass to Duvalier, 36–40.

  32. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 349–50.

  33. Ibid., 351.

  34. Denis, “100 Ans,” 22–24.

  35. Leslie F. Manigat, “La substitution de la prépondérance américaine à la prépondérance française en Haïti au début du XXe siècle: La conjoncture de 1910–1911,” Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine 14, no. 4 (December 1967): 323.

  36. Denis, “100 Ans,” 10–11; David Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour, and National Independence in Haiti, rev. ed. (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996), 102–7.

  37. Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier, 113–17.

  38. Denis, “100 Ans,” 10–11.

  39. Firmin, Lettres de Saint-Thomas, 111–15; Joseph-Anténor Firmin, The Equality of the Human Races (New York: Garland, 2000), xvi. The arguments in Louis-Joseph Janvier, La république d’Haïti et ses visiteurs (1840–1882) (Paris: Mappon et Flammarion, 1883), were also shaped by his encounter with contemporary French anthropology.

  40. Firmin, Equality, 325–28.

  41. Ibid., 198.

  42. On the broader history of Firmin’s work and impact, see Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban’s introduction to Firmin, Equality.

  43. Dorsainvil, Histoire d’Haïti, 267–70; Moïse, Constitutions, 1:226.

  44. Georges J. Benjamin, La Diplomatie d’Anténor Firmin: Ses péripéties, ses aspects (Nancy, France: Grandville, 1957), 43–45; Denis, “100 Ans,” 31–32.

  45. Polyné, Douglass to Duvalier, 30, 46–47; Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 398–400.

  46. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 416–17, 425–26.

  47. Ibid., 420; Dorsainvil, Histoire d’Haïti, 269–71.

  48. Denis, “100 Ans,” 32; Montague, Haiti, 146–47; Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 408.

  49. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 411–14; Montague, Haiti, 147.

  50. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 426; Polyné, Douglass to Duvalier, 6.

  51. On the role of descendants of migrants from Saint-Domingue in politics in Louisiana, see Rebecca J. Scott, Degrees of Freedom: Louisiana and Cuba After Slavery (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2005).

  52. Mimi Sheller, Democracy After Slavery: Black Publics and Peasant Radicalism in Haiti and Jamaica (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2000), 69.

  53. Moïse, Constitutions, 1:246.

  54. Ibid., 1:247.

  55. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 429–30.

  56. Ibid., 432–33; Montague, Haiti, 147.

  57. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 438.

  58. Frederick Douglass, “Haïti and the United States. Inside History of the Negotiations for the Môle St. Nicolas. II,” North American Review 153, no. 419 (October 1891): 456–57; Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 406–7, 433–34.

  59. Frederick Douglass, “Haïti and the United States. Inside History of the Negotiations for the Môle St. Nicolas. I,” North American Review 153, no. 418 (September 1891): 339–40; Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 447–48.

  60. Montague, Haiti, 148–49; Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 436, 442, 447–48; Douglass, “Haïti and the United States. Inside History of the Negotiations for the Môle St. Nicolas. I,” 343–44.

  61. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 441–44.

  62. Ibid., 448–49.

  63. The full correspondence is published in Firmin, Roosevelt, 497–501. See also Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 448–50, and Benjamin, Diplomatie, 91–96.

  64. Firmin, Roosevelt, 498–500.

  65. Denis, “100 Ans,” 14; Marc Péan, L’échec du Firminisme (Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, 1987), 52–53.

  66. Firmin, Roosevelt, 497–501; Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 437–38, 451.

  67. Denis, “100 Ans,” 14; Firmin, Lettres de Saint-Thomas, 117–18.

  68. Denis, “100 Ans,” 14.

  69. Dorsainvil, Histoire d’Haïti, 274–75; Montague, Haiti, 178–79.

  70. Dorsainvil, Histoire d’Haïti, 275–78; Péan, Firminisme, 66.

  71. Péan, Firminisme, 69–71, 81.

  72. Ibid., 100–105.

  73. Price-Mars, Anténor Firmin, 20–23.

  74. Péan, Firminisme, 110–19.

  75. Ibid., 122–30.

  76. Ibid., 133–34.

  77. Ibid., 157–59.

  78. Denis, “100 Ans,” 38, 39; Marc Péan, La ville éclatée (Décembre 1902–Juillet 1915), vol. 3 (Port-au-Prince: Imprimeur II, 1993), 93–95.

  79. Denis, “100 Ans.”; Firmin, Roosevelt, 477; Patrick Bellegarde-Smith, In the Shadow of Powers: Dantès Bellegarde in Haitian Social Thought (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press International, 1985), xiv.

  80. Firmin, Roosevelt, 472–73.

  81. Claude Moïse, Constitutions et luttes de pouvoir en Haïti, 1804–1987: De l’occupation étrangère à la dictature macoute (1915–1987), vol. 2 (Montréal: Éditions du CIDIHCA, 1988), 12.

  6: OCCUPATION

  1. François Blancpain, Haïti et les États-Unis: 1915–1934: Histoire d’une occupation (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1999), 33–34.

  2. Ibid., 33–35; François Blancpain, Un siècle de relations financières entre Haïti et la France (1825–1922) (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2001), 75–76.

  3. Hans Schmidt, The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1995), 33, 61. The most detailed study of the shift in financial power is Leslie François Manigat, “La substitution de la prépondérance américaine à la prépondérance française en Haïti au début du XXe siècle: La conjoncture de 1910–1911,” Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine 14, no. 4 (December 1967): 321–55.

  4. Blancpain, Un siècle, 32; Alain Turnier, Les États-Unis et le marché haïtien (Washington, 1955), 209; Manigat, “La substitution,” 322–23.

  5. Blancpain, Haïti et les États-Unis, 32.

  6. Ibi
d., 36–37.

  7. Ibid., 37–38.

  8. Kethly Millet, Les paysans haïtiens et l’occupation américaine d’Haïti, 1915–1930 (La Salle, Québec: Collectif Paroles, 1978).

  9. For an excellent textual and visual overview of this economy, see Georges Anglade, Atlas critique d’Haïti (Montréal: Groupe d’Études et de Recherches Critiques d’Espace, UQAM, 1982).

  10. Millet, Les paysans, 44, 52.

  11. Roger Gaillard, Charlemagne Péralte le caco (Port-au-Prince: R. Gaillard, 1982), 119–23.

  12. J. C. Dorsainvil, Manuel d’histoire d’Haïti (Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, 1924), 287–89; Mary A. Renda, Taking Haiti: Military Occupation and the Culture of U.S. Imperialism, 1915–1940 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 91.

  13. Gaillard, Charlemagne, 124–25; Schmidt, Occupation, 64–65, 71; Renda, Taking Haiti, 80–81; Claude Moïse, Constitutions et luttes de pouvoir en Haïti, 1804–1987: De l’occupation étrangère à la dictature macoute (1915–1987), vol. 2 (Montréal: Éditions du CIDIHCA, 1988), 26–27. For a detailed study of Bobo’s biography and movement, see Roger Gaillard, Les cent-jours de Rosalvo Bobo; ou, une mise à mort politique, 2nd ed. (Port-au-Prince: R. Gaillard, 1987).

  14. Roger Gaillard, Premier écrasement du cacoïsme (Port-au-Prince: R. Gaillard, 1981), 12.

  15. Ibid., 11.

  16. Renda, Taking Haiti, 96; Schmidt, Occupation, 57.

  17. Schmidt, Occupation, 48.

  18. Ibid., 55.

  19. Renda, Taking Haiti, 99–100.

  20. Schmidt, Occupation, 66; Dantès Bellegarde, L’occupation américaine d’Haïti, ses conséquences morales et économiques (Port-au-Prince: Chéraquit, 1929), 5.

  21. Rayford Logan, Haiti and the Dominican Republic (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), 125–27.

  22. Gage Averill, A Day for the Hunter, a Day for the Prey: Popular Music and Power in Haiti (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), 36.

  23. Renda, Taking Haiti, 84–85.

  24. Gaillard, Écrasement, 13, 21; Schmidt, Occupation, 67.

  25. Gaillard, Écrasement, 14–15; Schmidt, Occupation, 67.

  26. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:28; Gaillard, Écrasement, 53.

  27. Roger Gaillard, La destinée de Carl Brouard: Essai accompagné de documents photographiques (Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, 1966), 6; Renda, Taking Haiti, 85.

  28. Gaillard, Écrasement, 20.

  29. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:28–30; Schmidt, Occupation, 71–72.

  30. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:28–30; Schmidt, Occupation, 71–72.

  31. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:30–31; Gaillard, Écrasement, 111–12. On Dartiguenave’s background and presidency, see Barthelemieux Danache, Le président Dartiguenave et les américains (Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie de l’État, 1950).

  32. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:32.

  33. Gaillard, Écrasement, 53–55; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:28.

  34. Gaillard, Écrasement, 57–58.

  35. Ibid., 59–60.

  36. Ibid., 100–103.

  37. Ibid., 113.

  38. Ibid., 98–99.

  39. Danache, Le président Dartiguenave, 47; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:36–39; Blancpain, Haïti et les États-Unis, 64–65; Gaillard, Écrasement, 141–42.

  40. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:39–40; Claude Moïse, Constitutions et luttes de pouvoir en Haïti, 1804–1987: La faillite des classes dirigeantes (1804–1915), vol. 1 (Montréal: Éditions du CIDIHCA, 1988), 301.

  41. The song is reprinted in full, and translated into French, in Gaillard, Écrasement, 148–51, 227–29. See also Averill, Hunter, 48–49, and Moïse, Constitutions, 2:40–41.

  42. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:40–41; Select Committee on Haiti and Santo Domingo Congress, Inquiry into Occupation and Administration of Haiti and Santo Domingo (Washington, D.C.: United States Congress, 1921), 395.

  43. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:42–43.

  44. Gaillard, Écrasement, 144.

  45. Ibid., 38–39.

  46. Ibid., 38–40.

  47. Ibid., 105, 109.

  48. Ibid., 117, 152.

  49. Renda, Taking Haiti, 78–80.

  50. Hans Schmidt, Maverick Marine: General Smedley D. Butler and the Contradictions of American Military History (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1987), 84, 87; Renda, Taking Haiti, 155–56; Schmidt, Occupation, 144–45.

  51. Renda, Taking Haiti, 141, 155, 156; H. P. Davis, Black Democracy: The Story of Haiti (New York: L. MacVeagh, Dial Press, 1929), 224.

  52. Renda, Taking Haiti, 140–43; Gaillard, Écrasement, 162.

  53. Gaillard, Écrasement, 167; Renda, Taking Haiti, 117, 142.

  54. Schmidt, Maverick Marine, 75, 78; Schmidt, Occupation, 146; Renda, Taking Haiti, 13.

  55. Gaillard, Charlemagne, 108.

  56. Gaillard, Écrasement, 184–89; Schmidt, Maverick Marine, 81.

  57. Gaillard, Écrasement, 184–88; Renda, Taking Haiti, 146; Lowell Jackson Thomas, Old Gimlet Eye: The Adventures of Smedley D. Butler as Told to Lowell Thomas (New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1933); Schmidt, Maverick Marine, 90.

  58. Gaillard, Écrasement, 188.

  59. Congress, Inquiry, 398; Renda, Taking Haiti, 135; Gaillard, Charlemagne, 200.

  60. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:46. The most detailed institutional history of the Gendarmerie (later renamed the Garde d’Haïti) is James H. McCrocklin, Garde d’Haiti, 1915–1934: Twenty Years of Organization and Training by the United States Marine Corps (Annapolis: United States Naval Institute, 1956). On Butler, see Schmidt, Maverick Marine, 83–84.

  61. B. Davis, Marine! The Life of Lt. Gen. Lewis B. (Chesty) Puller, USMA (ret.) (Boston: Little, Brown, 1962), 27.

  62. François Blancpain, Louis Borno, président d’Haïti (Port-au-Prince: Éditions Regain, 1998), 172.

  63. Renda, Taking Haiti, 147–48; Schmidt, Occupation, 148.

  64. Gaillard, Charlemagne, 44; Renda, Taking Haiti, 150.

  65. Renda, Taking Haiti, 166–67.

  66. Ibid., 80, 171.

  67. Gaillard, Charlemagne, 34–36.

  68. Ibid., 33–38.

  69. Congress, Inquiry, 553; Roger Gaillard, Hinche mise en croix (Port-au-Prince: Le Natal, 1982), 29.

  70. Renda, Taking Haiti, 154; Schmidt, Occupation, 146.

  71. This transformation is emphasized in Anglade, Atlas critique d’Haïti.

  72. Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Haiti, State Against Nation: The Origins and Legacy of Duvalierism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1990), 106.

  73. Gaillard, Hinche, 26–27; Schmidt, Occupation, 110–11.

  74. Congress, Inquiry, 606; Gaillard, Hinche, 31.

  75. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:63; Renda, Taking Haiti, 148–50; Gaillard, Hinche, 176, chap. 4; Congress, Inquiry, 658.

  76. Gaillard, Hinche, 213–14; Renda, Taking Haiti, 148–50.

  77. Gaillard, Hinche, 215–16.

  78. Ibid., 32, 220, 223–24.

  79. Ibid., 217–18; Congress, Inquiry, 658.

  80. Gaillard, Hinche, 224.

  81. Ibid., 33–39.

  82. Roger Gaillard, La république autoritaire (Port-au-Prince: R. Gaillard, 1981), 28.

  83. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:59.

  84. Ibid., 2:49–57.

  85. Ibid., 2:56–59.

  86. Ibid., 2:60–61; Schmidt, Occupation, 97–98; Howard Zinn and Anthony Arnove, Voices of a People’s History of the United States, 2nd ed. (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2009), 251–52.

  87. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:64; Schmidt, Occupation, 98–99.

  88. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:62–65; Schmidt, Occupation, 98–99; Rayford W. Logan, “Education in Haiti,” Journal of Negro History 15, no. 4 (October 1930): 450.

  89. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:65–67. On the impact of U.S. investment and commerce in Haiti in the early twentieth century, see Turnier, Marché, esp. chap. 10; on Roosevelt and the constitution, see Schmidt, Maverick Marine.

  90. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:67; Mirlande Manigat, Traité
de droit constitutionnel haïtien (Port-au-Prince: Université Quisqueya, 2000), 532–43.

  91. Gaillard, Hinche, 177–79.

  92. Ibid., 180–81.

  93. Ibid., 180–81, 187–88, 225.

  94. Ibid., 199–209; Millet, Les paysans, 90.

  95. Gaillard, Hinche, 175–76; Renda, Taking Haiti, 149–50.

  96. Gaillard, Charlemagne, 68–71, 87.

  97. Ibid., 68–71.

  98. B. Davis, Marine! 43; Renda, Taking Haiti, 151, 156–57; the photograph from the Crisis is reprinted in Gaillard, Charlemagne, 337.

  99. Gaillard, Charlemagne, 237.

  100. Ibid., 147–48.

  101. Ibid., 101, 140.

  102. Ibid., 139–48; David Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour, and National Independence in Haiti, rev. ed. (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996), 146.

  103. Gaillard, Charlemagne, 98–100; Schmidt, Occupation, 105.

  104. Gaillard, Charlemagne, 96.

  105. Ibid., 247.

  106. Ibid., 188, 292.

  107. Ibid., 160–61; Renda, Taking Haiti, 173–74.

  108. Gaillard, Charlemagne, 113, 164–65, 187, 214–16; Schmidt, Occupation, 103; Millet, Les paysans, 101.

  109. Gaillard, Charlemagne, 126–36.

  110. Ibid., 184–86, 201.

  111. Ibid., 206.

  112. Ibid., 208–12.

  113. Ibid., 212–14.

  114. Renda, Taking Haiti, 171–72.

  115. Gaillard, Charlemagne, 222–23, 333.

  116. Ibid., 298–306.

  117. Ibid., 308–9.

  118. Ibid., 317–18.

  119. Renda, Taking Haiti, 150; Congress, Inquiry, 606; Gaillard, Hinche, 26–27; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:63; Millet, Les paysans, 109; Gaillard, Charlemagne, 322–23.

  120. Gaillard, Charlemagne, 325–26.

  121. Ibid., 334.

  122. Ibid., 308, 335.

  123. The photograph is reproduced among the illustrations following p. 134 in Schmidt, Occupation.

  124. Gaillard, Charlemagne, illustrations following p. 335. My thanks to LeGrace Benson for providing me with these details about Obin’s paintings of Péralte.

  7: SECOND INDEPENDENCE

  1. François Blancpain, Louis Borno, président d’Haïti (Port-au-Prince: Éditions Regain, 1998), 175–76; Rulhière Savaille, La grève de 29: La première grève des étudiants haïtiens, 31 Octobre 1929 (Port-au-Prince: Ateliers Fardin, 1979), 18–19.