Haiti

  Part of the inspiration for this work came from the many conversations I have had about Haiti with journalists covering the 2010 earthquake. Among them, Damien Cave of the New York Times and Jeb Sharp of BBC’s The World have been particularly impassioned and committed to tying past to present. I thank both of them for their work and for the ways that their questions prodded me to articulate and interpret Haitian history.

  The Triangle French Studies Workshop and the Haiti Lab Working Group both read drafts of early chapters of the book, and the comments of participants were a tremendous help. During our collective experience of the 2010 World Cup in South Africa, conversations with Paul Gilroy, Achille Mbembe, Sarah Nutall, and Vron Ware provided direction and inspiration.

  In Haiti, dialogues with Pierre Buteau, Fritz Deshommes, Michel Hector, Patrick Tardieu, Lyonel Trouillot, and students at the Université d’État helped shape my thinking on key issues. And though I know him only through his work, Claude Moïse has been a constant companion. His research and analysis have been fundamental for me in writing this book. So, too, has the work of Georges Anglade, who was among the hundreds of thousands who died on January 12, 2010, and who left behind an illuminating body of work that makes Haiti’s past live on. My ongoing friendship and dialogue with Erol Josué has also been crucial in framing my approach.

  Honor and respect are due to my amazing editors at Metropolitan Books, Sara Bershtel and Grigory Tovbis, for tremendous patience and fortitude, keen and lucid critique, and endless intellectual generosity. It would simply have been impossible for me to write this book without them, and I feel undeservedly lucky to have had the chance to work with them. I am also grateful to my agent, Wendy Strothman, for helping me develop the project and shepherding it to the perfect place.

  Finally, to my son, Anton Dubois—who has gotten used to having to interrupt me by asking, “Are you talking about Haiti again?”—and my coconspirator in all things, Katharine Brophy Dubois, I owe gratitude for all the sustenance that makes it possible to think and write.

  INDEX

  The index that appeared in the print version of this title does not match the pages in your eBook. Please use the search function on your eReading device to search for terms of interest. For your reference, the terms that appear in the print index are listed below.

  abolitionists

  Acaau, Louis Jean-Jacques

  Adams, John

  Adams, John Quincy

  Africa

  African Americans

  African Institution

  Afro-American (newspaper)

  agriculture. See also lakou system; land ownership; métayage; plantations; rural population; tenant farmers; and specific crops

  Boyer and

  Christophe and

  cooperative model of

  Dessalines and

  Duvaliers and

  Louverture and

  Pétion and

  stagnation of, in 1950s

  subsistence vs. export crops

  taxes and

  U.S. occupation and

  Alaux, Gustave d’. See Reybaud, Maxime

  Alexander, emperor of Russia

  Alexis, Jacques-Stephen

  Alexis, Nord

  Allen, John H.

  Alliance for Progress

  American Federation of Labor (AFL)

  Anderson, Marian

  Anglade, Georges

  Anthropological Society of Paris

  anti-communism

  Araignées du Soir, Les

  Ardouin, Beaubrun

  Ardouin, Céligny

  Aristide, Jean-Bertrand

  arms aid and sales

  Artibonite Valley

  authoritarianism. See also presidency, power of

  Báez, Buenaventura

  Bahamas

  bananas

  Banks, Joseph

  Banque National d’Haïti (BNH)

  Baptists

  Barbot, Clément

  Barnett, George

  baseball production

  Batista, Fulgencio

  baton-lamnò treatment

  Batraville, Benoît

  Bawon Samèdi (Vodou lwa)

  Beauvoir, Max

  Belgium

  Bellegarde, Dantès

  Belley, Jean-Baptiste

  Bennett, Michèle

  Benoît, François

  Betances, Ramón Emeterio

  Bizoton

  Black Bagdad (Craige)

  “black communism”

  Blackhurst, James

  blacks. See also elites, color and class and

  Blaine, James

  Boas, Franz

  Bobo, Rosalvo

  Bois Caïman ceremony

  Bolívar, Simón

  Borno, Louis

  Bosch, Juan

  Boukman

  Boyer, Jean-Pierre

  Brazil

  Brokaw, Louis A.

  Brooks, David

  Brouard, Carl

  Brown, John

  Bryan, William Jennings

  Buffon, Comte de (George-Louis Leclerc)

  Butler, Smedley Darlington

  Button, William R.

  Caco wars

  cagoulards

  Calice, Caliska

  Cambronne, Luckner

  Campbell, Chandler

  Candio (August de Pradines)

  Cannibal Cousins (Craige)

  cannibalism, accusations of

  Caperton, William

  Caribbean Confederation

  carnival

  Carter, Jimmy

  Casimir, Jean

  Catholic Church

  Catlin, Albertus

  Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)

  Césaire, Aimé

  Chabert prison camp

  Charles X, king of France

  Chauvet, Ernest

  Chicago Defender (newspaper)

  Christianity. See also specific denominations

  Christophe, Ferdinand

  Christophe, Henry

  death of

  Duvalier and

  indemnity and

  as king

  Pétion vs.

  war of independence and

  Christophe, Jacques-Victor-Henry

  Citadelle Laferrière, La (Citadel)

  Cius, Jean-Robert

  Clarkson, Thomas

  Clinton, Bill

  Clyde, William P.

  coaling depots

  Coanabo, Cacique

  Cochinat, Victor

  cocoa crops

  Code Henry

  Code Rural

  coffee

  Cold War

  colonial militia

  Columbus, Christopher

  Compagnie Nationale des Chemins de Fer d’Haïti (National Railroad)

  Congress of Arcahaye (1803)

  Congress of Panama (1826)

  Congress of Vienna (1814–15)

  Conrad, Joseph

  Conseil National de Gouvernment (CNG)

  Conzé, Jean-Baptiste

  Cook, James

  corruption

  Corsican immigrants

  corvée labor

  cotton

  counter-plantation system

  Craige, John Houston

  creoles. See also elites; mulattoes

  Crête-à-Pierrot (Haitian warship)

  Crisis (NAACP magazine)

  Cuba

  expelled from OAS

  immigration to

  revolution of 1959

  U.S. occupation of

  Cuban refugees

  “cultivators”

  customs. See also taxes and tariffs

  Dalmas, Antoine

  Damien agricultural school

  Daniels, Josephus

  Danticat, Edwidge

  Darfour, Félix

  Dartigue, Maurice

  Dartiguenave, Philippe Sudre

  Declaration of the Rights of Man

  Défilée

  deforestation

  Déjoie
, Louis

  Déjoie, Louis, Jr.

  De la littérature des nègres (Grégoire)

  Delorme, Demesvar

  democracy, struggle for

  Democratic Party (U.S.)

  Denis, Lorimer

  Dessalines, Jean-Jacques

  assassination of

  Duvalier and

  flag and

  Hispaniola and

  memory of

  rule by

  war of independence and

  Diagne, Blaise

  Díaz, Porfirio

  dissent

  Dominican Republic

  border and

  coup of 1963

  massacre of 1937 and

  migrants to

  independence of 1844

  independence of 1865

  restored to Spain

  Soulouque invades

  treaty of 1874

  U.S. and

  Dominique, Jean

  Dorsinville, Roger

  Douglass, Frederick

  Du Bois, W.E.B.

  Dulles, John Foster

  Dumesle, Hérard

  Boukman and

  exile of

  Dunham, Katherine

  Duvalier, François “Papa Doc”

  background of

  constitution of 1957 and

  constitution of 1964 and

  death of

  election of

  U.S. and

  Vodou and

  Duvalier, Jean-Claude “Baby Doc”

  Duvalier, Simone Ovide Faine

  “Duvalierism after Duvalier”

  earthquakes

  of 1842

  of 2010

  education

  Egypt

  Eisenhower, Dwight D.

  elections

  of 1810

  of 1842

  of 1902

  of 1917

  of 1918, constitutional referendum

  of 1930

  of 1935

  of 1946

  of 1957

  of 1961, referendum on Duvalier

  of 1964, constitutional referendum

  of 1971, constitutional referendum

  of 1990

  of 1995

  of 2005

  constitution of 1843 and

  constitution of 1846 and

  U.S. occupation and

  electoral commission

  elites

  Acaau uprising and

  Christophe and

  color and class and

  Dessalines and

  Liberal Party vs. National Party and

  mass population and

  Price-Mars and

  reformers and

  Soulouque and

  U.S. occupation and

  English language

  Episcopal Church

  Equality of the Human Races, The (Firmin)

  Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (Gobineau)

  Estimé, Dumarsais

  ethnographic movement

  evangelical groups

  Everett, Edward

  exports. See also taxes and tariffs; and specific crops

  ex-slaves

  extended families

  Farnham, Roger

  feminists

  Féry, Honoré

  Festival of Agriculture

  Fignolé, Daniel

  finances (budget, debt). See also indemnity

  Firmin, Anténor

  anthropology and racial theories of

  constitution of 1889 and

  Cuba and

  Duvalier and

  elections of 1879 and

  elections of 1902 and

  exile and death of

  Hyppolite and

  Puerto Rico and

  Sam and

  uprising of 1888 and

  U.S. and

  U.S. Môle cession rejected by

  Firminisme

  Forbes, William Cameron

  Forbes Commission

  foreign aid

  foreign investment

  foreign merchants

  Fort Dimanche prison

  Fort Liberté

  Fort Rivière

  Fourcand, Jacques

  Fourier, Charles

  France

  Britain and

  Christophe and

  Christophe and Pétion negotiate for recognition by

  colonial rule by

  cultural links with

  Dumesle on

  Duvalier and

  economic dominance of

  Firmin and

  indemnity paid off

  Price-Mars and

  recognition by, and indemnity

  Revolution of 1789

  slave revolt of 1791 and

  Soulouque satire in

  threats by

  U.S. and

  war of independence vs.

  Freeman, George

  free people of color

  French banks

  French Code Noir

  French Direction de la Monnaie

  French language

  French merchants

  French National Convention of 1794

  French priests

  fruit plantations

  Gaetjens, Joe

  Gaillard, Roger

  Garde d’Haïti (formerly Gendarmerie)

  Geffrard, Fabre

  Gendarmerie (later Garde d’Haïti)

  German immigrants

  German merchants

  Germany

  Lüders case

  World War I and

  Gherardi, Bancroft

  Gobineau, Arthur, Comte de

  Goman (Jean-Baptiste Perrier)

  Gompers, Samuel

  Gonaïves

  Grande-Rivière-du-Nord

  Grant, Ulysses S.

  Great Britain

  Grégoire, Henri (Abbé)

  Guadeloupe

  guano

  Guantánamo Bay

  Guerrier, Philippe (Duc de l’Avancé)

  guerrilla warfare. See Caco wars

  Haiti. See also Saint-Domingue

  Alexis presidency (1902–8)

  Aristide presidency (1991)

  bicameral legislature replaced with single Congress

  Borno presidency (1922–30)

  Boyer presidency (1818–43) and reunification of

  Christophe monarchy (1806–20) in north

  civil wars. See uprisings and civil wars

  Columbus and

  complex history and culture of

  constitutions. See Haitian constitutions

  Dartiguenave presidency (1915–22)

  Dessalines presidency (1804–6)

  divided between Christophe and Pétion

  Dominican Republic and

  Dumesle’s history of

  Dumesle’s leadership of (1843–44)

  Duvalier fils presidency (1971–86)

  Duvalier père presidency (1957–71)

  Estimé presidency (1946–50)

  Europe as model of governance

  Firmin-Alexis campaign of 1902

  Firmin and U.S. and

  Firmin on racism and

  flag by Dessalines

  flag by Duvalier

  flag by Pétion

  foreign influence in contemporary

  foreign threats to

  founding ceremony of

  French banks and

  French colonial rule

  French exiled planters and

  French priests in

  French Revolution and

  future of

  Geffrard presidency (1859–67)

  Guerrier presidency (1844–45)

  Hérard presidency (1843–44)

  Hyppolite presidency (1889–96)

  indemnity to France

  indemnity to Germany

  independence declared by

  Légitime presidency (1888–89)

  Lescot presidency (1941–46)

  Liberal Party vs. National Party and

  Louver
ture rule in (1791–1802)

  Magloire presidency (1950–56)

  map of

  Martelly presidency (2011– )

  names of

  negative stereotypes of

  NGOs and

  official language of

  Pétion presidency, in south (1806–18)

  political instability of central, vs. local stability

  Préval presidency (1996–2001)

  recognition of, by foreign powers

  recognition of, by France

  recognition of, by U.S.

  recognition of, by Vatican

  reform in, post-Duvalier

  religions and (see also specific religions)

  Roosevelt Corollary and

  rural culture of

  Salnave presidency (1867–69)

  Salomon presidency (1879–88)

  Sam fils presidency (1915)

  Sam père presidency (1896–1902)

  “Second Independence” of 1934

  sesquicentennial of independence (1954)

  social infrastructure of

  Soulouque monarchy (1847–59)

  U.S. attempt to control customs in

  U.S. Civil War and

  U.S. convention of 1916 and

  U.S. fear of slave revolt and

  U.S. Marines land in

  U.S. occupation of (1915–34)

  U.S. seeks naval station in

  U.S. takes Navassa from

  U.S. threats to, in nineteenth century

  U.S. trade and

  U.S. withdrawal from (1934)

  Vincent presidency (1930–41)

  World War I and

  Haïti (ship)

  Haitian American Development Corporation

  Haitian-American Sugar Company (HASCO)

  Haitian army. See also Garde d’Haïti; Gendarmerie; Tontons Makouts

  Aristide and

  constitution of 1816 and

  constitution of 1987 and

  Duvaliers and

  elections of 1902 and

  local administration and

  president as commander in chief of

  uprising of 1843 and

  uprisings of 1911–15 and

  U.S. occupation and

  Haitian Boy Scouts

  Haitian Bureau

  Haitian Catholic bishops

  Haitian Chamber of Deputies (later combined into Congress of Deputies)

  Haitian Congress of Deputies

  Haitian constitutions

  of 1801

  of 1805

  of 1816

  of 1843

  of 1846

  of 1843–89

  of 1889

  of 1918

  of 1932

  of 1935

  of 1957

  of 1964

  of 1971

  of 1987

  death of Dessalines and

  Haitian emigration and diaspora

  Haitian League of Human Rights

  Haitian National Assembly

  Haitian Red Cross

  Haitian Revolution (slave revolt)

  Dumesle visits sites of

  Firmin on

  impact of, on U.S.

  memory and promise of

  Sans-Souci as hero of

  Haitian Senate (later combined into Congress of Deputies)

  abolished

  Haitian War of Independence (1801–3)