by E. B. White
bed chamber
bed-chamber
bedchamber
wild life
wild-life
wildlife
bell boy
bell-boy
bellboy
The hyphen can play tricks on the unwary, as it did in Chattanooga when two newspapers merged—the News and the Free Press. Someone introduced a hyphen into the merger, and the paper became The Chattanooga News-Free Press, which sounds as though the paper were news-free, or devoid of news. Obviously, we ask too much of a hyphen when we ask it to cast its spell over words it does not adjoin.
Margins. Keep righthand and lefthand margins roughly the same width. Exception: If a great deal of annotating or editing is anticipated, the lefthand margin should be roomy enough to accommodate this work.
Numerals. Do not spell out dates or other serial numbers. Write them in figures or in Roman notation, as appropriate.
August 9,1988
Part XII
Rule 3
352d Infantry
Exception: When they occur in dialogue, most dates and numbers are best spelled out.
"I arrived home on August ninth."
"In the year 1990,1 turned twenty-one."
"Read Chapter Twelve."
Parentheses. A sentence containing an expression in parentheses is punctuated outside the last mark of parenthesis exactly as if the parenthetical expression were absent. The expression within the marks is punctuated as if it stood by itself, except that the final stop is omitted unless it is a question mark or an exclamation point.
I went to her house yesterday (my third attempt to see her), but she had left town.
He declares (and why should we doubt his good faith?) that he is now certain of success.
(When a wholly detached expression or sentence is parenthesized, the final stop comes before the last mark of parenthesis.)
Quotations. Formal quotations cited as documentary evidence are introduced by a colon and enclosed in quotation marks.
The United States Coast Pilot has this to say of the place: "Bracy Cove, 0.5 mile eastward of Bear Island, is exposed to southeast winds, has a rocky and uneven bottom, and is unfit for anchorage."
A quotation grammatically in apposition or the direct object of a verb is preceded by a comma and enclosed in quotation marks.
I am reminded of the advice of my neighbor, "Never worry about your heart till it stops beating."
Mark Twain says, "A classic is something that everybody wants to have read and nobody wants to read."
When a quotation is followed by an attributive phrase, the comma is enclosed within the quotation marks.
"I can't attend," she said.
Typographical usage dictates that the comma be inside the marks, though logically it often seems not to belong there.
"The Fish." "Poetry," and "The Monkeys" are in Marianne Moore's Selected Poems.
When quotations of an entire line, or more, of either verse or prose are to be distinguished typographically from text matter, as are the quotations in this book, begin on a fresh line and indent. Quotation marks should not be used unless they appear in the original, as in dialogue.
Wordsworth's enthusiasm for the French Revolution was at first unbounded:
Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive,
But to be young was very heaven!
Quotations introduced by that are indirect discourse and not enclosed in quotation marks.
Keats declares that beauty is truth, truth beauty.
Dickinson states that a coffin is a small domain.
Proverbial expressions and familiar phrases of literary origin require no quotation marks.
These are the times that try men's souls.
He lives far from the madding crowd.
References. In scholarly work requiring exact references, abbreviate titles that occur frequently, giving the full forms in an alphabetical list at the end. As a general practice, give the references in parentheses or in footnotes, not in the body of the sentence. Omit the words act, scene, line, hook, volume, page, except when referring to only one of them. Punctuate as indicated below.
in the second scene of the third act
in III.ii (Better still, imply insert III.ii in parentheses at the proper place in the sentence.)
After the killing of Polonius, Hamlet is placed under guard (iv.ii.14).
2 Samuel i:17-27
Othello II.iii 264-267, II..iii 155-161
Syllabication. When a word must be divided at the end of a line, consult a dictionary to learn the syllables between which division should be made. The student will do well to examine the syllable division in a number of pages of any carefully printed book.
Titles. For the titles of literary works, scholarly usage prefers italics with capitalized initials. The usage of editors and publishers varies, some using italics with capitalized initials, others using Roman with capitalized initials and with or without quotation marks. Use italics (indicated in manuscript by underscoring) except in writing for a periodical that follows a different practice. Omit initial A or The from titles when you place the possessive before them.
A Tale of Two Cities; Dickens's Tale of Two Cities.
The Age of Innocence; Wharton's Age of Innocence.
* * *
IVWords and Expressions Commonly Misused
Many of the words and expressions listed here are not so much bad English as bad style, the commonplaces of careless writing. As illustrated under Feature, the proper correction is likely to be not the replacement of one word or set of words by another but the replacement of vague generality by definite statement.
The shape of our language is not rigid; in questions of usage we have no lawgiver whose word is final. Students whose curiosity is aroused by the interpretations that follow, or whose doubts are raised, will wish to pursue their investigations further. Books useful in such pursuits are Mer-riam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Tenth Edition; The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Third Edition; Webster's Third New International Dictionary; The New Fowler's Modern English Usage, Third Edition, edited by R. W. Burchfield; Modern American Usage: A Guide by Wilson Follett and Erik Wensberg; and The Careful Writer by Theodore M. Bernstein.
Aggravate. Irritate. The first means "to add to" an already troublesome or vexing matter or condition. The second means "to vex" or "to annoy" or "to chafe."
All right. Idiomatic in familiar speech as a detached phrase in the sense "Agreed," or "Go ahead," or "O.K." Properly written as two words—all right.
Allude. Do not confuse with elude. You allude to a book; you elude a pursuer. Note, too, that allude is not synonymous with refer. An allusion is an indirect mention, a reference is a specific one.
Allusion. Easily confused with illusion. The first means "an indirect reference"; the second means "an unreal image" or "a false impression."
Alternate. Alternative. The words are not always interchangeable as nouns or adjectives. The first means every other one in a series; the second, one of two possibilities. As the other one of a series of two, an alternate may stand for "a substitute," but an alternative, although used in a similar sense, connotes a matter of choice that is never present with alternate.
As the flooded road left them no alternative, they took the alternate route.
Among. Between. When more than two things or persons are involved, among is usually called for: "The money was divided among the four players." When, however, more than two are involved but each is considered individually, between is preferred: "an agreement between the six heirs."
And/or. A device, or shortcut, that damages a sentence and often leads to confusion or ambiguity.
First of all, would an honor system successfully cut down on the amount of stealing and/or cheating?
First of all, would an honor system reduce the incidence of stealing or cheating or both?
Anticipate. Use expect in the sense of simple expectation.
I anticipat
ed that he would look older.
I expected that he would look older.
My brother anticipated the upturn in the market.
My brother expected the upturn in the market.
In the second example, the word anticipated is ambiguous. It could mean simply that the brother believed the upturn would occur, or it could mean that he acted in advance of the expected upturn—by buying stock, perhaps.
Anybody. In the sense of "any person," not to be written as two words. Any body means "any corpse," or "any human form," or "any group." The rule holds equally for everybody, nobody, and somebody.
Anyone. In the sense of "anybody," written as one word. Any one means "any single person" or "any single thing."
As good or better than. Expressions of this type should be corrected by rearranging the sentences.
My opinion is as good or better than his.
My opinion is as good as his, or better (if not better).
As to whether. Whether is sufficient.
As yet. Yet nearly always is as good, if not better.
No agreement has been reached as yet.
No agreement has yet been reached.
The chief exception is at the beginning of a sentence, where yet means something different.
Yet (or despite everything) he has not succeeded.
As yet (or so far) he has not succeeded.
Being. Not appropriate after regard… as.
He is regarded as being the best dancer in the club.
He is regarded as the best dancer in the club.
But. Unnecessary after doubt and help.
I have no doubt but that
I have no doubt that
He could not help but see that
He could not help seeing that
The too-frequent use of but as a conjunction leads to the fault discussed under Rule 18. A loose sentence formed with but can usually be converted into a periodic sentence formed with although.
Particularly awkward is one but closely following another, thus making a contrast to a contrast, or a reservation to a reservation. This is easily corrected by rearrangement.
Our country had vast resources but seemed almost wholly unprepared for war. But within a year it had created an army of four million.
Our country seemed almost wholly unprepared for war, but it had vast resources. Within a year it had created an army of four million.
Can. Means "am (is, are) able." Not to be used as a substitute for may.
Care less. The dismissive "I couldn't care less" is often used with the shortened "not" mistakenly (and mysteriously) omitted: "I could care less." The error destroys the meaning of the sentence and is careless indeed.
Case. Often unnecessary.
In many cases, the rooms lacked air conditioning.
Many of the rooms lacked air conditioning.
It has rarely been case that any mistake has been made.
Few mistakes have been made.
Certainly. Used indiscriminately by some speakers, much as others use very, in an attempt to intensify any and every statement. A mannerism of this kind, bad in speech, is even worse in writing.
Character. Often simply redundant, used from a mere habit of wordiness.
acts of a hostile character
hostile acts
Claim (verb). With object-noun, means "lay claim to." May be used with a dependent clause if this sense is clearly intended: "She claimed that she was the sole heir." (But even here claimed to be would be better.) Not to be used as a substitute for declare, maintain, or charge.
He claimed he knew how.
He declared he knew how.
Clever. Note that the word means one thing when applied to people, another when applied to horses. A clever horse is a good-natured one, not an ingenious one.
Compare. To compare to is to point out or imply resemblances between objects regarded as essentially of a different order; to compare with is mainly to point out differences between objects regarded as essentially of the same order. Thus, life has been compared to a pilgrimage, to a drama, to a battle; Congress may be compared with the British Parliament. Paris has been compared to ancient Athens; it may be compared with modern London.
Comprise. Literally, "embrace": A zoo comprises mammals, reptiles, and birds (because it "embraces," or "includes," them). But animals do not comprise ("embrace") a zoo—they constitute a zoo.
Consider. Not followed by as when it means "believe to be."
I consider him as competent.
I consider him competent.
When considered means "examined" or "discussed," it is followed by as:
The lecturer considered Eisenhower first as soldier and second as administrator.
Contact. As a transitive verb, the word is vague and self-important. Do not contact people; get in touch with them, look them up, phone them, find them, or meet them.
Cope. An intransitive verb used with with. In formal writing, one doesn't "cope," one "copes with" something or somebody.
I knew they'd cope. (jocular)
I knew they would cope with the situation.
Currently. In the sense of now with a verb in the present tense, currently is usually redundant; emphasis is better achieved through a more precise reference to time.
We are currently reviewing your application.
We are at this moment reviewing your application.
Data. Like strata, phenomena, and media, data is a plural and is best used with a plural verb. The word, however, is slowly gaining acceptance as a singular.
The data is misleading.
These data are misleading.
Different than. Here logic supports established usage: one thing differs from another, hence, different from. Or, other than, unlike.
Disinterested. Means "impartial." Do not confuse it 'tuth uninterested, which means "not interested in."
Let a disinterested person judge our dispute, (an impartial person)
This man is obviously uninterested in our dispute, (couldn't care less)
Divided into. Not to be misused for composed of. The line is sometimes difficult to draw; doubtless plays are divided into acts, but poems are composed of stanzas. An apple, halved, is divided into sections, but an apple is composed of seeds, flesh, and skin.
Due to. Loosely used for through, because of or owing to, in adverbial phrases.
He lost the first game due to carelessness.
He lost the first game because of carelessness.
In correct use, synonymous with attributable to: "The accident was due to bad weather"; "losses due to preventable fires."
Each and every one. Pitchman's jargon. Avoid, except in dialogue.
It should be a lesson to each and every one of us,
It should be a lesson to every one of us (to us all).
Effect. As a noun, means "result"; as a verb, means "to bring about," "to accomplish" (not to be confused with affect, which means "to influence").
As a noun, often loosely used in perfunctory writing about fashions, music, painting, and other arts: "a Southwestern effect"; "effects in pale green"; "very delicate effects"; "subtle effects"; "a charming effect was produced." The writer who has a definite meaning to express will not take refuge in such vagueness.
Enormity. Use only in the sense of "monstrous wickedness." Misleading, if not wrong, when used to express bigness.
Enthuse. An annoying verb growing out of the noun enthusiasm. Not recommended.
She was enthused about her new car.
She was enthusiastic about her new car.
She enthused about her new car.
She talked enthusiastically (expressed enthusiasm) about her new car.
Etc. Literally, "and other things"; sometimes loosely used to mean "and other persons." The phrase is equivalent to and the rest, and so forth, and hence is not to be used if one of these would be insufficient—that is, if the reader would be left in doubt as to any important particulars. Least open to objection when it represen
ts the last terms of a list already given almost in full, or immaterial words at the end of a quotation.
At the end of a list introduced by such as, for example, or any similar expression, etc. is incorrect. In formal writing, etc. is a misfit. An item important enough to call for etc. is probably important enough to be named.
Fact. Use this word only of matters capable of direct verification, not of matters of judgment. That a particular event happened on a given date and that lead melts at a certain temperature are facts. But such conclusions as that Napoleon was the greatest of modern generals or that the climate of California is delightful, however defensible they may be, are not properly called facts.
Facility. Why must jails, hospitals, and schools suddenly become "facilities"?
Parents complained bitterly about the fire hazard in the wooden facility.
Parents complained bitterly about the fire hazard in the wooden schoolhouse.
He has been appointed warden of the new facility.
He has been appointed warden of the new prison.
Factor. A hackneyed word; the expressions of which it is a part can usually be replaced by something more direct and idiomatic.
Her superior training was the great factor in her winning the match.
She won the match by being better trained,
Air power is becoming an increasingly important factor in deciding battles.
Air power is playing a larger and larger part in deciding battles.
Farther. Further. The two words are commonly interchanged, but there is a distinction worth observing:/art/ier serves best as a distance word, further as a time or quantity word. You chase a ball farther than the other fellow; you pursue a subject further.
Feature. Another hackneyed word; like factor, it usually adds nothing to the sentence in which it occurs. A feature of the entertainment especially worthy of mention was the singing of Allison Jones,
(Better use the same number of words to tell what Allison Jones sang and how she sang it.)
As a verb, in the sense of "offer as a special attraction," it is to be avoided.
Finalize. A pompous, ambiguous verb. (See Chapter V, Reminder 21.)