by David Alkek
"You know what I think of the Assembly, my friend," Phocion replied. "They are a bunch of mindless animals, easily led by the most persuasive speaker, and Demosthenes is capable of doing it. The last time I addressed the Assembly, I was warmly applauded. I turned and asked a friend of mine, had I inadvertently said something wrong."
Aeschines laughed. He had risen from poverty to a comfortable living, by his own hard work. He had been a teacher and an actor and thus had learned to become a fluent speaker and noted orator. He could speak extemporaneously without a prepared text as most other orators used. He had served in many wars with Phocion and was committed to him in advocating peace with Philip. Even though he was paid by the Macedonian king, it merely increased his enthusiasm.
"Yes, I realize that we walk a precarious line," mused Phocion. "We must continue to urge peace among the upper classes, and influential men. You can use some of Philip's money to help me."
"I must be circumspect in doing that. But in public, I'll speak against Demosthenes in the Assembly."
* * *
Demosthenes was meeting with some of his war party to plan their strategy. "Phocion is talking with many of the wealthy men and leaders in Athens."
"He's trying to frighten them," said Hyperiedes. "He tells them that Athens doesn't have a strong army. He warns them that they will be taxed heavily and may even have their property confiscated to hire mercenaries."
"He's partly right," admitted Demosthenes. "We will have to raise taxes to support a war, but we can also enlist our own citizens. I have a plan to do that. But we must blunt Phocion's campaign. We must not come under Philip's power."
Another man spoke up, "Phocion has such prestige. The people, rich and poor alike, honor him. You can't attack him directly."
"No," agreed Demosthenes, "but I can attack his friend Aeschines. I'll bring an indictment against him on the charge of receiving Macedonian gold."
"Of course," said Hyperiedes, "that will shut him up. He'll appear to be supporting peace with Philip only because he's paid to do so."
The trial was held and most of the citizens of Athens came to witness the duel between the two greatest orators of the day. Demosthenes eloquently laid out his arguments that Aeschines should be convicted of receiving bribes from a foreign power. This was a crime that deserved banishment. He sat down after his speech, convinced of his victory.
Aeschines rose in his defense. He denied that his support of peace was Philip was bought. It was for a sincere concern for the safety of Athens. He then turned to face Demosthenes. "What hypocrisy," he shouted. "He accuses me of being in the pay Philip of Macedon, and he receives gold from the great King of Persia. It is no secret. He claims to support Athenian independence, but at what price? It is a far greater crime to support war with Greeks and their allies because of bribes from Persia. The Great King rules over our brothers in Ionia. Demosthenes would accept his money and bow down as well.
"I say you should acquit me of these ridiculous charges, and bring the same charges against Demosthenes."
The jurors were convinced by Aeschines arguments and acquitted him. Demosthenes fumed. He strode away from the proceedings with Hyperiedes. "This is not a defeat,” he vowed, “merely a temporary setback. I will continue to attack Philip and Aeschines and his peace party in the Assembly. They will listen to me. We will have our war with Philip yet.”
* * *
Isocrates, now ninety years old, addressed an open letter to Philip. He praised Philip, yet advised him. "I foresee that you Philip, King of Macedon, will unite all the Greeks under your leadership. The Greek states need a strong leader, who will prevent them from the fratricidal wars to which they are prone. I beg you not to use the power that you will obtain, as a tyrant, for we Greeks have had our fill of those. Rather, you must use your political and military influence to unify all the Greek states in a war of liberation for our Greek brothers of Ionia from their Persian masters. We hail you as the unifier of the Greeks. Lead us to victory over the Persians."
Hyperiedes finished reading the letter after Demosthenes gave it to him. He threw it down on the floor and stomped on it. "What an old fool," he said in disgust. "This sounds like a slave asking his master to beat him."
"He asks Philip not to be a tyrant," Demosthenes laughed. "Oh, please be a good boy. Don't sell us all into slavery."
Hyperiedes continued to fume, "That old fool is calling for nothing less than for all Greeks to surrender themselves to the Macedonian despot. I will resist that to my death."
"I agree, my friend," Demosthenes replied. "Philip will continue to gobble up parts of Greece, and the small city-states will support him until he is king over all of it. I will denounce the letter before the Assembly."
Demosthenes friends spread the word that he was going to make important speech before the Assembly at its next meeting. The seats were full and people stood around to hear the fiery orator was bound to entertain his audience.
Demosthenes read Isocrates letter to Philip, then proceeded to tear it apart. He called Isocrates a cringing dog, licking the feet of Philip, and picking up the scraps left by him. "Does he think that Philip will be kind to us, just because we are his slaves? The Macedonian tyrant will lead us by the nose and force us to fight a war against the mighty Persian Empire, just for his own glory."
He castigated Isocrates for encouraging the King of Macedon. He branded him a traitor to Athens. "The old man has lost his mind, if not his loyalty to our city. He must be silenced or banished from us."
Demosthenes continued to work up his fiery rhetoric, until they cheered in martial hysteria. They booed Isocrates and chanted against Philip. Demosthenes philippics were coming to fruition.
He drew short of charging Isocrates with treason, but the old teacher was humiliated, and his pen was silenced for the next few years.
Philip's strategy was working. His diplomacy had gained him leadership of the Thessalonian League, and with it the finest cavalry in Greece. Year after year his influence advanced down into Greece. The obvious growth of Philip's power added weight to Demosthenes' campaign. He chided the Athenians and the Assembly for doing nothing to hinder Philip's advance into the heart of Greece. He called them cowards and again appealed to their patriotism. Shamed by Demosthenes, the Assembly voted to raise a citizen army and to pay them with the theoric fund. Taxes were raised. Athens was preparing for war.
Philip was furious and threatened to choke Athens' grain supply. Demosthenes knew that Philip would respond in this way. It played into his hands, and he screamed at the Assembly that he had warned them of this power-hungry monster. He urged the Assembly to vote for war against Philip. He said that he would help Athens collect allies, and that Thebes would surely join them. His long campaign had last borne fruit. The Assembly declared war.
* * *
Athens soon raised its citizen army and enthusiastically marched north to join with Thebes to fight Philip. The combined force consisted of ten thousand Athenian infantry and six hundred cavalry, twelve thousand Theban infantry and eight hundred cavalry, and the Sacred Band of three hundred devoted fighters. Other allies and mercenaries added up to a total of thirty-six thousand infantry and two thousand cavalry.
The veteran Macedonian army of thirty thousand infantry and two thousand cavalry proceeded south to face the allied force near the town of Chaeronea not far from Thebes.
Philip arrayed his formidable phalanx and awaited the battle with his usual emotion. He loved battle: it was the element that he thrived on. His heart beat louder, his head cleared, his eyes focused on the field, and his mind developed his strategy. He was also proud of his oldest son, Alexander, who was fighting his first battle. He had enough confidence in him that he gave him command of the elite cavalry, The Companions, on the left flank. He was assisted by senior generals and the Thessalian cavalry.
Alexander was ready. He was a remarkable youth of eighteen, who had had extensive military training by his father. He had learned the strategies of
phalanx and cavalry, of siege warfare, and of supply. His heart beat in anticipation, for even though it was his first major battle, he wasn't afraid. His father's son, he felt at home on a horse, leading men, a spear in his hand.
Alexander rode Bucephalus, strong, proud, and as excited for the coming battle as his youthful rider. Alexander's honey-colored curls bounced and caught the sunlight as he galloped along the lines of his men urging them on to victory. He wanted all the men to recognize him, before he put on his helmet. His enthusiasm was contagious, and his men cheered him as he passed.
He encouraged them. "We will route the Greek cavalry on our end," he told them. "After we have chased them from the field, we will attack the Thebans on the left and engage the Sacred Band. Follow me, my Companions, and we will celebrate a great victory today." The cavalry yelled victory and made ready for the charge.
Philip commanded the right flank, opposite the Athenians. His plan was to draw the Athenians and the Thebans apart, then to attack as a wedge between them. The allies had never fought together, and were unfamiliar with the Macedonian tactics. The Thebans on the left were commanded by a general who was ignorant of military tactics. The Athenian general the right, by contrast, was rash.
The king gave the signal for the battle to begin. The Macedonians gave a great roar and beat their shields, advancing slowly. The Athenians advanced as well, and grappled with the wall of spears. Philip's orders were for the phalanx in the center to draw the Athenian infantry to them and hold them.
He led his cavalry against the Athenians, who beat them back. For many hours of battle was doubtful. The Athenian commander, thinking that victory was in sight, urged his cavalry to pursue Philip's flank. Philip quickly used his phalanx to retrieve his loss. The long spears of the Macedonians could not be breached by the Athenian infantry or horse and bore down everything before them.
Meanwhile, Alexander urged his cavalry to repeated charges against the Thebans. Horses thundered over ground already dampened by blood. Yells filled the air as spears and swords clashed with shields. The horses' whinnies mingled with the cries of dying men, who fell beneath the crashing hooves.
As the Athenians on the right advanced to a perceived advantage, the Thebans on the left were gradually pushed back. They were anchored by the Sacred Band, the strong arm of brave Epaminondas. Alexander saw the space that was opening between the Thebans and Athenians. He yelled at his companions to charge into it. The disciplined cavalry galloped through the breach and Alexander wielded it around to the left around the Theban infantry. He turned to his men following him and pointed at the Theban Band. "Attack them in the rear," he called above the din of battle.
Philip, meanwhile was able to break the ranks of the Athenian infantry, and pursued its cavalry from the field. The Thebans took to flight, after they saw Alexander turn their flank. The Sacred Band stood their ground, and was killed in the last man.
The victory was complete. The Athenians and Thebans each lost at least one thousand men killed and about seven thousand wounded. It was a disaster for the Greek allies. Alexander also showed his ability to use his cavalry and his quick perception on the battlefield to take advantage of the enemy's weakness. This was to be a great weapon for him in future battles.
Demosthenes had encouraged his fellow Athenians and their Theban allies that they fought for freedom against a man who would be a tyrant over them. He fought bravely, but was no soldier. Seeing that his fellow Athenians were no match for Philip's phalanx, he began to falter. When he saw the line give way, he threw down his shield and armor and fled.
Hyperiedes helped him onto horses that he found. As they rode away from the slaughter, he turned to Demosthenes. "Better to live and resist Philip than to die on this field.”
"Perhaps you're right," Demosthenes lowered his head in shame, "but how will the Athenians see me? As a coward running away from the battle."
"You led the good fight against the tyrant and lost. There is no lack of virtue in that. Your strength lay in your ability as orator and political leader, not as a general. Live and continue to fight Philip." They rode to Athens.
After the battle, Alexander was hailed as a hero. He was carried on the shoulders of some of the Companions into camp. The Macedonians cheered him, as they carried him to his father's quarters.
Philip received him, and hugged him in his huge arms, his face beaming with pride. "I am proud of you, my son. You have proved today to be my true heir. You will lead Macedon to new victories."
"Thank you, Sire, but you must leave some for me." He smiled and embraced his father.
The men cheered. "Hail to Alexander. Hail to the future King of Macedon."
Philip acknowledged the soldiers and told them with spirit to celebrate their triumph. He bade Alexander to follow him inside his tent. "Now the work of peace begins, Alexander. It is more difficult and less exciting than the thrill of battle, but it is important to solidify the gains of victory. You will watch what we do. I will need you to lead a delegation to Athens."
"Will we ask for the heads of Demosthenes and his friends? Will we garrison the city? What will you do with Thebes?"
"All in good time, my son. However, I see you are thinking about the political options. Let's celebrate our victory tonight. I can already taste the wine." He laughed. Alexander laughed as well. He slapped his father's back and left to change clothes and wash the blood from his body.
* * *
When news of Philip's victory reached Athens, Isocrates realized that his dream of Greek unity had finally come true. "But at what a price," he lamented to a friend. "I wanted Athens to unite peacefully under Philip in his march against Persia. Instead, Greek blood covers the field of a forced alliance. My beloved Athens lays prostrate and humiliated. The joy of unity and peace, and the disappointment and sorrow of defeat mingle in my breast."
His friends tried to comfort him. "You have seen the unification of Greece, Isocrates. Now, we can invade Asia and free our brothers of Ionia."
"My old eyes are tired. They may never see our victory over Persia. Leave me alone now with my feelings of triumph and sorrow." Yes, he thought sadly, his wish for Greek unity had come, but at the price of defeat on the bloody battlefield. Philip's leadership would be resented instead of welcomed. Greeks would go to Persia and fight against him. He decided that he had done what he could.
"I have lived long enough," he confessed to a friend. "Let me die in peace." He starved himself and died five days after the battle that had unified Greece. He was ninety-eight.
* * *
Philip's diplomatic triumphs after Chaeronea matched his victory on the battlefield. First, he humbled Thebes. After selling the Thebans prisoners into slavery, he disarmed what remained of her army. The Sacred Band had been destroyed and was not allowed to be re-formed. He put to death some of the Theban leaders. "I will appoint a governing council, that is favorable to us," he said to his generals. "I will also place a garrison in their fortified acropolis, the Cadmeia. That should keep the Thebans quiet."
“What shall we do with Athens?" Another general spoke up.
"I have already decided that," Philip turned to Alexander. "You will go with Antipater to Athens. Return the Athenian prisoners and give them back their arms."
“You are being very generous, Sire,” said Antipater, “but you’ve always had a soft spot in your heart for Athens.”
“I’m being practical, my friend,’ said the king. “I want to show them that I am not the monster that Demosthenes has painted me. Their power to wage war is broken, and I need their navy when I invade Asia.”
"What of Demosthenes?" Antipater asked. “Should we demand that he be handed over to us?"
"He will be forced into exile, and his mouth has been shut for now. His fellow citizens have seen the folly of his leadership, and his cowardice in fleeing the battlefield. Tell the Athenian prisoners that they may also take their slain with them back to Athens for honorable burial. In return, Athens must acknowledge me as
leader of all Greek forces against the Persian foe.”
"That is very civilized of you, Sire. Antipater and I will do as you say."
Athens was relieved at Philip's leniency, for they had expected much harsher terms for leading the fight against him. The Assembly was so overjoyed, that they welcomed Alexander and Antipater, and consented to Philip's terms. Not only that, but they covered Philip with compliments, referring to him as the new Agamemnon, the conqueror of Troy.
* * *
Not long afterward, Philip convened an assembly of all the Greek states in Corinth. All came except Sparta. As usual the Spartan response to the invitation was that they be the leader of any federation or alliance. Philip ignored the Spartans, who by then had lost what military and political power they once had.
"Greeks, my brothers of the south," Philip addressed the gathered delegates. "We have gained Greek unity. Yes, it was bought with blood, but may that blood be the mortar that seals the peace. I ask only that you elect me as your commander of a united force, which I will use to defeat the Persians, and free our Ionian brethren.
"I ask that each city-state among you pledge armed men and money, according to your population, to my army. I also require you to pledge not to fight me or each other. Remember, we all must fight the common foe.
"For my part, I grant that each Greek city may govern itself. They will have their individual freedom as long as their governing bodies are sympathetic to me. I will withdraw my forces to Macedon, trusting that you all will keep the peace among you."
Representatives discussed Philip’s proposals, and realized that they may have lost a measure of individual freedom, but exchanged it for unity and a stable peace. Besides, if they acquiesced to Philip's call for arms, it was a small price to pay to keep him away from their walls.
One of the Athenian delegates rose to speak. "The purpose of our league is to avenge the Persian insults. Xerxes burned the temples on our acropolis and insulted the gods. They call out for revenge. This is our opportunity to do that by uniting behind a person who will lead Greece once more against the Persian menace."
The assembly cheered and voted to name Philip commander-in-chief of all Greek forces for life. The Corinthian League, as it was called, was a brilliant piece of diplomacy for Philip. He had unified Greece, and they had accepted him as leader. He did this without having to garrison troops throughout Greece. He also was wise not to proclaim himself king over them, for he knew about Greek sensibilities on that matter. He had learned how to use diplomacy rather than conquest to gain his ends.