by David Alkek
Alexander laughed heartily. "You're right; they will hold their noses, turn and run. Let us camp for the night and engage them tomorrow."
That night, Alexander and his generals Parmenion, Craterus, Philotas, and Cleander reconnoitered the battleground. They found that it had been completely leveled, even stamped as a parade ground to prepare for the Persian chariots. They agree that Parmenion would command the left; Philotas, Alexander and The Companions cavalry would be on the right; while Craterus would have the forward phalanx in the center. He would be supported by a second line of phalanx behind him and the Thracians behind them. In order to guard against out-flanking by the Persian superior force, Cleander’s veteran mercenaries guarded the flanks and bent backwards at an angle. Alexander had the largest army he had ever commanded. The recruited Greek mercenaries and reinforced cavalry units brought his total to forty thousand soldiers and seven thousand cavalry. Satisfied with his observations and deployments, Alexander returned to camp and made sacrifices to the gods.
In the twenty months since the battle of Issus, the Persians had made an effort to build a reputable fighting force. The famous archers and ten thousand "Immortals" who had been the backbone of the heavy infantry that had forged an empire, no longer existed. Other than the Royal Guard, the infantry mostly consisted of untrained levies and tribesmen. The best part of the army was the cavalry, including the Cappadocians, who had link armor, a thrusting spear and a longer sword. Darius had brought back the chariot with scythed wheels. These had not been used for a long while. Two hundred of these chariots were drawn up in front of the infantry. In addition, Darius had fifteen war elephants that he placed in front. Horses disliked confronting elephants, and they could be very effective against Alexander's cavalry. His cavalry Darius placed on his flanks, as did Alexander.
Alexander having made his dispositions and eaten a light supper went early to bed and slept well into the morning, rested and ready to give battle Darius on the other hand, made his men stand at their arms all night, a foolish move, since this only tired them before the battle even began.
When he formed up his forces, Alexander saw that The Companions were opposite the scythed chariots, so he moved his line to the right to bring his infantry opposite the chariots. Seeing that the Greeks might shift too far to the right off of the leveled ground, Darius immediately launched his heavy cavalry under Bessus against Alexander's extreme right. A hard fight ensued, with Alexander holding the Persians by skillfully sending in fresh units as they were needed.
The Persians launched their chariots, but they were soon thrown into confusion by volleys of javelins. The drivers had not had time to train effectively. The horses panicked, often running into other chariots. The ones that reached the front phalanx were allowed to pass through and were annihilated by the second line.
Observing that Alexander had thrown in his last cavalry reserve on the right, Darius launched his two enveloping attacks. The entire Persian cavalry moved forward. However, instead of the Persian left concentrating their attack against The Companions, they headed far to the right to envelop the Greek right wing. This mistake caused a break in the line. It was part of Alexander's genius to see an opening during the heat of battle and to instantly take advantage of it. He wheeled the Companion cavalry, and part of the phalanx to the left and wedged into the gap. With a loud battle cry he headed straight toward Darius himself.
There ensued a fierce hand-to-hand struggle, Darius’ guard putting up a vigorous fight. However, when the dense Macedonian phalanx with its bristling lances made an attack on them, Darius lost courage and fled. His guards were killed almost to a man.
The battle was not yet won, however. When the Greek phalanx of the right advanced, the Persian cavalry broke through the gap cutting the phalanx in two. Instead of turning and helping to destroy the hard-pressed Greek left, they rode straight on to loot the baggage. Parmenion sent a desperate call to Alexander for help. This reached him as he was completing his successful charge on the right. He immediately turned the Companions and crossed the battlefield, encountering the Persian guard and Parthian and Indian cavalry.
Some of the fiercest cavalry fighting of the battle was taking place. The Persians were now becoming aware that Darius had fled and began to lose heart. The Greeks on the left, made another charge, and the Persian right collapsed. The Persian left flank under Bessus made an orderly retreat. Alexander ordered his men to pursue and kill as many of the enemy as possible. They chased the Persians for thirty-five miles as far as Arbela, pausing only for a short rest around midnight. The slaughter was unimaginable.
Alexander's men were filled with a combination of awe and affection for him. They tell him in awe because they saw how the gods protected him from the utmost danger, and favored him with outstanding victories against overwhelming odds. They held him in affection because he shared their hardships, their food, and shelter. He held them as brothers in arms and knew their names.
The battle of Gaugamela wrote in stone, the truth of Alexander's military genius and his victory over the Persian Empire. He was the master of Asia. Darius fled into the hills of Media, but Alexander did not pursue him. Instead he turned to the great cities of Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis.
Callisthenes wrote to Aristotle of Alexander's taking of Babylon, the winter capital of the Persian Kings. "On approaching Babylon, a deputation of officials from the city came to greet Alexander. They prostrated themselves before him, and hailed him as their conqueror and master. They said that he would be welcomed into their city and asked that he spare it from slaughter, looting and destruction. Alexander showed restraint and foresight by sparing the city, and as a lesson to other cities of his mercy, if they surrendered to him."
Babylon surrendered much wealth to Alexander. He distributed some to his soldiers, which satisfied them since they were prevented from looting. The chief priest invited Alexander to the main temple, so they could honor him. "Alexander climbed the steps of the Temple of Ishtar in his gleaming armor, carrying flowers and a vial of oil," wrote Callisthenes. "The priests said prayers and burnt incense and blessed Alexander. They said that the Babylonian gods have also claimed Alexander to be a living god. Then Alexander placed the flowers at the foot of the statue of the goddess, poured the oil on her feet and bowed down, while the priests and the people beamed and nodded with approval. He then turned and spoke directly to the people. Through a translator he told them that he would restore all the city’s sacred shrines that the Persians had removed.
"I must admit, Aristotle, that even though we Greeks do not approve of bowing down and giving obeisance to foreign gods, Alexander charmed the Babylonians. They love him, as if he is a god himself. The Babylonian priests have convinced Alexander that they have strong influence with their ancient gods, and that indeed Alexander is one of them. These declarations of the Egyptians, and now the Babylonians that Alexander is divine, troubles not only me but the soldiers. The Asian's are familiar with this type of god-king, but we Greeks are not."
Callisthenes continued his description of Alexander's habits in another letter to Aristotle. "As you know, Alexander has always had a wild and restless spirit, always seeking new adventures and delighting in courting danger, and even injury or death. He cannot stand resting and is always thinking of new things to do, innovations, military tactics, worlds to conquer.
"He made fun of his generals recently because they had so many servants, they had nothing to do. I quote what he told them. ‘I wonder that you with your experience do not know that those who work sleep more soundly than those for whom other people work. Have you yet, to learn that the greatest need after our victories is to avoid the vices and weaknesses of those whom we have conquered?’
"He begrudges time needed for sleep and is sparing in his eating. In drinking, he enjoys lingering with his friends and occasionally with us scholars over a goblet of wine. Occasionally, however, after he has ordered unforgivable slaughter, he will drink longer and deeper. I am fearful, uncle,
that during these bouts of drinking, when his coating of social conscience is washed away, a ferocious barbarism will emerge and consume him."
By the end of that year, Alexander reached Susa, the summer capital of the Persian Kings, which welcomed him. Callisthenes again wrote to his uncle. "Alexander protected the city from pillage, but satisfied his troops with some of the fifty-thousand talents he found in Darius’ treasure houses. He sent some of it back to Platea in Greece, which had bravely resisted the Persian invasion a hundred and fifty years ago. He also returned to the Greek cities on the Asian coast the donations he had elicited from them early in his campaign. He is indeed showing himself to be a magnanimous conqueror. Perhaps he has learned something from you and Phidias in how to show his humanity. He had me compose a letter to be circulated among the Greeks of the entire world, that they are now completely free of Persian rul
Alexander did not tarry long in Susa, but was anxious to capture Darius’ ceremonial capital at Persepolis. In midwinter he crossed the mountains and seized the capital so unexpectedly that the Persians did not have time to hide the royal treasury. The treasure he collected was so vast, that it took twenty thousand mules and five thousand camels to remove it.
As Alexander approached Persepolis, they came upon a hundred Greeks, who had been captured by the Persians. One of his captains brought the unfortunate men to Alexander. He was horrified by the sight. "Oh, ye gods," he exclaimed, and broke down into tears at the sight of the mutilated captives. Some had their arms, legs, or ears cut off, while others had their eyes gouged out.
Alexander reflected the fury that his soldiers felt at this outrage. "The Persians will pay dearly for this," he vowed. He turned to his captain. "See that these unfortunates are given lands in Persia, and slaves to work for the
Possibly because of this mutilation of fellow Greeks, Alexander this time, allowed his men to loot the city, ravage the women, and slaughter the men. Alexander tried to wash away the two days of bloody savagery with heavy drinking. As if on a whim, he decided to perform one more act of revenge. "Burn the Palace of Darius," he ordered a general.
"But Sire, it is such a magnificent edifice. Surely you could occupy it yourself."
"I said burn it," he screamed through a drunken haze. "I order you to do it to avenge the Persian invasion of Greece and the burning of Athens."
Phidias was appalled. "What a shameful waste. We could have learned so much of the culture and history of Persia in that place." He shook his head and wondered about Alexander's judgment, especially when he had too much wine.
Alexander indeed had a complex personality, with fits of slaughter and destruction, moderated by lofty ideals of universal brotherhood. His demons would continue to haunt him.
VI Dangers and Ordeals
Chapter 27
Alexander's generals congratulated him on his conquest and subjugation of Persia. "Surely your goal of conquering the world's largest and richest empire is fulfilled," said Parmenion. "When can I tell the men they may return to Macedon and Greece?"
"But Sire," said Cleitus, "Darius is still alive and may yet raise another army, even though he is a coward, he has able generals, like Bessus and Mazaeus."
"Cleitus is right,’ said Alexander. All in Babylon, Susa, Persepolis, and the other cities we have captured consider me as rightful King of Persia by conquest. However, as long as Darius lives, my rights to that throne may be questioned. We must pursue and capture him and force him to abdicate, and then I will marry his daughter to cement the legitimacy of my reign. Parmenion, tell the men to rest and enjoy the spoils of war for now. In the summer we will march north in pursuit of Darius."
As summer swelled the warehouses with grain, Alexander's army provisioned itself, and once again marched, this time to capture Darius and destroy any pockets of resistance. Alexander had almost caught up with his quarry when he received a message.
"Sire," Cleitus announced, "we have received a message from Bessus, the chief Persian general. He said that he and the other generals were disgusted with the cowardice and mismanagement of the Great King in this war. Their long resentment flared into rebellion and they killed Darius. They ask for peace with you. It is my opinion that he would ask some reward from you for removing this threat to your throne. He might seek to be appointed a satrap of one of the provinces."
"We shall see about that," said Alexander. "It was my hope that I would capture Darius and force him to make obeisance to me and acknowledge me as the King of Persia. Now I have been denied that fulfillment of my dream by a cowardly act."
"But you are now the undisputed Great King. We will have the official ceremony when we return to Susa."
"But it is still a disappointment."
The next day, Alexander came upon Darius’ body and sent it with due honors back to Persepolis for proper burial in the royal resting place of the Persian Kings. A new flame of revenge was ignited in Alexander as he pondered the lost opportunity and the humiliation of his vanquished foe.
"We will pursue Bessus and destroy the last of his army, even following him into the far territories if necessary. I will avenge the murder of Darius."
His advisers were disappointed that they could not rest from campaigning after seven years, but they could not dissuade Alexander and followed him as if he were Apollo himself.
Unsatisfied by his conquest of Persia and the death of Darius, Alexander decided to subjugate the tribes on the eastern borders of Persia. This had not even been accomplished by the great Cyrus, but Alexander could not satiate his lust for battle and conquest.
Callisthenes followed Alexander to record his exploits, while Phidias remained in Babylon. He sent back reports to Aristotle through Phidias. "His campaign into Sogdiana, Ariana, and Bactria were bloody. He now controls the lands that had belonged to Darius. He achieved little," wrote Callisthenes,” except winning some victories, finding some gold, and leaving enemies everywhere. Near Bokhara he found Bessus. Alexander made himself the avenger of the Great King. He had Bessus whipped almost to death, cut off his nose and ears, and then sent him to Ecbatana. He was executed by having his arms and legs tied to two trees that had been drawn together by ropes. When the ropes were cut, the trees pulled him to pieces. Aristotle, I am afraid that as Alexander is removed further in distance and time from Greece, he is acting less and less like a Greek and more and more like a barbarian king."
Phidias read Callisthenes’ letters with a mixture of emotions. He was satisfied that Alexander had exhibited mercy and forbearance when he captured Babylon and Susa. He showed generosity with the spread of some of Darius’ treasure among his soldiers and Greek cities. Pity and a generous spirit were his when he saw the mutilated Greek captives.
However, these were thrown away by wanton slaughter and the burning of the Palace in Persepolis. History may never forgive him for that. What had Alexander to gain except the shedding of more blood and self-aggrandizement by invading the tribal areas that the Persians never completely subjugated. Phidias thought that the barbarian blood of Olympias was boiling in Alexander's veins. He wondered which part of Alexander would finally win out.
Phidias also was concerned about Callisthenes’ obvious criticism of Alexander. Would that color his objectiveness as a chronicler of historical events? It would be a shame if his historical record was tainted by his prejudices.
What bothered Phidias the most was that if Callisthenes’ criticism of Alexander became overt and he was punished or sent home by Alexander. Callisthenes was brought as historian as a favor to Aristotle. It would be an insult to Aristotle, if Callisthenes was sent back to Greece.
* * *
After completing his conquest of the Persian Empire, Alexander decided to turn south and enter India. He had to cross the daunting Himalayas and his generals advised against it. "Alexander, the men are reluctant to go beyond Persia across those mountains into a strange land. They are tired and want to go home, at least back to Babylon," argued Seleucus.
"Reluctant? Were
they reluctant to follow me in the conquest of Persia and pursuit of Darius? Were they reluctant to bask in the glory of our victories? Were they reluctant to share the riches I have collected for them? Was I reluctant to share all the dangers and hardships that they suffered? No.
“Part of that country on the other side of the Indus River was ruled two centuries ago by the first Darius. I know my history, general. I am determined to recapture it for my own empire. Tell the men I will share all the wealth we capture, and I will personally lead them into any battle."
"Sire, I'm sure they will follow you, even though they may wish to return to Susa or Babylon. They need only hear your order, and they will obey. They honor you because of your example as our leader."
"Good, then we will cross the Hindu Kush. Tell the men that it is my order.”
Alexander with about twenty-seven thousand men followed the Kabul River, down to the Indus and crossed overland to the Hydaspes River. There near a place called Jhelum, Alexander fought one of his most difficult battles. The enemy under King Porus had an army several times the size of Alexander's and well-trained. He also had war elephants, which rendered Alexander's cavalry useless. The enemy was arrayed on the far side of the river. Alexander showed his military genius by feinting a series of attacks, then attacking from an unexpected quarter.
Porus and his army were defeated. Afterward, his general, Craterus, reported that up to twenty thousand of the enemy lay dead on the battlefield. “We fought their elephants with our phalanxes and long spears. They could not break our ranks."
Alexander was glad for the victory, but sad for a great loss. One of the casualties of the battle was his beloved horse, Bucephalus. He was heartbroken for his steed, that his father had given him as a youth. "I will have a city built to his honor and memory at the site of this battle. We will call it Bucephala."
After resting and refitting his army, Alexander told a meeting of his generals, "We will advance deeper into India."