SASSANID PERSIANS
The main story of Blood & Steel plays out against a background of the rise of Sassanid (or Sasanian) Persia. With hindsight the gravity of the eastern threat is obvious, but it was a matter of debate for contemporaries within the Roman empire (e.g. Cassius Dio 80.4.1).
Excellent overviews of ancient Persia are J. Wiesehöfer, Ancient Persia from 550bc to ad650 (London, and New York, 1996); and M. Brosius, The Persians: An Introduction (London, and New York, 2006).
Two recent surveys specifically on the Sassanids are provided by T. Daryaee, Sasanian Iran (224–651ce): Portrait of a Late Antique Empire (Costa Mesa, California, 2008); and Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire (London, and New York, 2009).
A different and engaging way into the subject is through B. Dignas, and E. Winter, Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity: Neighbours and Rivals (English translation, Cambridge, 2007).
THE TOWN OF CARRHAE
Geographic remoteness, and political instability have hindered archaeological investigations at Carrhae, modern Harran in Turkey. The map of Carrhae is based on an elderly article by S. Lloyd, and W. Brick, ‘Harran’, Anatolian Studies I (1951), 77–111. The assumptions have been made that the location of the citadel would not have moved, and that the surviving Byzantine/Medieval walls follow the course of those in Roman times. Most of the names of the gates come from a later period. I named the Gate of Sin because I liked the sound, and because the road from it led to the ancient Temple of the deity of that name. The novel puts a legionary camp on the site of the medieval castle.
CLASSICAL SEXUALITY
The study of gender and sexuality is a growth industry in Classical scholarship. Among much that is obscurantist and pretentious, J. R. Clarke, Looking at Lovemaking: Constructions of Sexuality in Roman Art 100BC–AD250 (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London, 1998) stands out for its elegance and good sense.
The modern orthodoxy holds that for the Greeks and Romans the essential categories were not heterosexual or homosexual, but active or passive. To be the penetrator was good, irrespective of the gender of the sexual partner. It was socially acceptable for an elite adult male to have active sex with almost anyone, providing he avoided the wives and children of other elite males. Conversely if a man was penetrated, it shamed him for life.
Unsurprisingly, ancient opinions varied. Some Romans claimed male–male sex was a reprehensible Greek import. Among the proponents of male–male sex there was a sometimes expressed opinion that the passive partner should not have reached maturity. Certain moral philosophers dissented to all sexual indulgence, as one might expect. One or two even made the extraordinary suggestion that a man should not have sex with anyone but his wife, not even with his slaves.
The attitudes of Priscus towards sex with young males – seemingly conventional enough in Classical culture, if shocking in ours – is constructed from Lucian, Erotes, and Achilles Tatius, Leucippe and Cleitophon. The very different views of his fellow easterners are drawn from Bardaisan of Edessa, The Book of the Laws of the Countries, translated by H. J. W. Drijvers (Assen, 1964).
Notes on prostitution will be given in the next novel, Fire & Sword.
JOKES
Mary Beard has brought the obscure Greek collection of ancient jokes that goes under the title Philogelos, ‘Laughter lover’, to scholarly and popular attention in her splendid Laughter in Rome: On Joking, Tickling, and Cracking Up (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London, 2014). The jokes in chapter eighteen of this novel are adapted from the translation of Philogelos by D. Crompton, A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (London, 1910).
QUOTES
The speeches in chapters three and eleven are drawn from the third century AD book of advice to orators by Menander Rhetor (edited, with translation and commentary, by D. A. Russell, and N. G. Wilson, Oxford, 1981).
In chapter twenty-four the Odyssey of Homer is recited in the translation of Robert Fagles (2006).
PREVIOUS WRITERS
In all my novels I like to include homages to writers who have given me great pleasure and inspiration.
Manu’s song in chapter twenty-eight is a paederastic version of one sung by Harry Paget Flashman in George MacDonald Fraser’s first outing with the arch cad (1969).
George R.R. Martin is very good at killing characters. The death of one character in Blood & Steel contains an echo of the death of … someone, in A Dance with Dragons (2011).
The final chapters are haunted by Cavafy’s poem The God Abandons Antony (and a bit of Plutarch and Shakespeare).
THANKS
The same people get thanked in all my novels, but there is no diminution in my gratitude. Without their help and encouragement, as well as criticism and forbearance, the books would not get written or published.
The family: my wife Lisa, sons Tom and Jack, mother Frances, and aunt Terry.
The professionals: James Gill at United Agents; Katie Espiner, Roger Cazalet, Kate Elton, Cassie Browne, Charlotte Cray, Liz Dawson, Ann Bissell, Damon Greeney, and Adam Humphrey at HarperCollins; Maria Stamatopoulou at Lincoln College; and John Eidinow at St Benets. Especially thanks go to Richard Marshall, also now of St Benets, for preparing the Glossary and List of Characters.
Other friends: Jeremy Tinton, Peter and Rachel Cosgrove, Michael Dunne, Imo Dawson, Vaughan Jones, and (this one is dedicated to) Jeremy and Katie Habberley.
Blood & Steel: Glossary
The definitions given here are geared to Blood & Steel. If a word or phrase has several meanings only that or those relevant to this novel tend to be given.
A Cubiculo: Official in charge of the bedchamber.
A Rationibus: Official in charge of the Emperor’s finances.
Abrenak: Modern Nishapur in northeastern Iran.
Achaea: Roman province of Greece.
Acherusian Peninsula: Place where, in Greek mythology, Hercules is said to have entered the Underworld; Modern Cape Baba on the northeastern coast of Turkey.
Acropolis: Sacred citadel of a Greek city.
Ad Aquas: Resort town on the northeastern coast of Africa Proconsularis; modern Bordj Sebbalat in Tunisia.
Ad Palmam: Oasis on the margin of the Lake of Triton (Chott el Djerid), southwest of Africa Proconsularis.
Ad Pirum: Roman fort in the Julian Alps; sited on the Hrušica plateau in modern Slovenia.
Aedile: Junior magistrates responsible for the upkeep of public buildings and the organization of festivals; expected to contribute their own money to put on lavish spectacles and games.
Aesontius river: The modern Isonzo river, flowing from the Julian Alps into the Adriatic.
Africa Proconsularis: Roman province of central North Africa, roughly modern Tunisia.
Agora: Greek term for a market place and civic centre.
Ahuramazda (also Mazda): ‘The Wise Lord’, the supreme god of Zoroastrianism, chief religion of the Sassanid empire.
Ala: Units of Roman auxiliary cavalry, usually around 500-, sometimes around 1000-strong; literally, a ‘wing’.
Alban Hills: Volcanic region 10 miles southeast of Rome, site of the legionary camp of the Second Parthian Legion.
Alcyonae: Poem on the mythical Alcyone written by Gordian the Elder; a short quotation survives.
Alexandrians: Population of the city of Alexandria in Egypt, notorious for their outspoken and riotous behaviour.
Alpha to Omega: The first and last letters of the Greek alphabet.
Alpha, beta, gamma: The first three letters of the Greek alphabet; also used as the symbols for the numbers 1, 2, 3.
Amicitia: Latin, ‘friendship’; the ancient term can be used with politi-cal overtones, suggesting ties of obligation and patronage.
Amicus (plural amici): Latin, ‘friend’.
Ammaedara: Roman town on the eastern border of Tunisia; modern Haïdra.
Amphora (plural amphorae): Large Roman earthenware storage vessels.
Andegan: Territory in southern Iran, probably around modern Fars.
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Anna Perenna: Roman goddess of the year’s cycle; her festival was celebrated on the Ides of March.
Antaeus: In Greek mythology, a half-giant who forced all he came across to wrestle; having defeated them, he collected their skulls to build a temple to his father Poseidon.
Antediluvian: In Greek mythology, time before the flood of Deucalion, which swept away the first age of men.
Antioch: Ancient city on the Orontes river in northeastern Syria; second city of the eastern Roman empire.
Antoniniad: Epic poem alleged to have been written by Gordian the Elder on the Emperors Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius; only the title survives.
Aornum: Site of ‘Charon’s Cave’ in northwestern Greece, thought to be an entrance to the underworld.
Apollo: Greek god of music and culture.
Apulia: Modern Puglia, the ‘heel’ of Italy.
Aquileia: Town in northeastern Italy.
Arabia: Roman province covering much of modern Jordan and the Sinai peninsular.
Aramaic: Ancient language spoken in much of the Levant and Mesopotamia.
Arch of Drusus: Arch erected in honour of Drusus, son of the Emperor Tiberius, erected in the vicinity of the Forum.
Arch of Titus: Monumental arch between the Roman Forum and Flavian Amphitheatre, commemorating the re-conquest of Jerusalem in AD70.
Archimea: Town in the southeastern foothills of the Julian Alps.
Arcia: Settlement in the southeastern ranges of the Julian Alps.
Ares: Greek god of war.
Arete: Fictional town on the Euphrates, modelled on Dura-Europus.
Ariminum: Modern Rimini on the northeastern coast of Italy.
Armenia: Ancient buffer kingdom between Rome and Parthia, occupying much of the area south of the Caucasus mountains and west of the Caspian Sea; much larger than the modern state of Armenia.
Arsacid: Dynasty that ruled Parthia 247BC–AD228.
Aryans: Literally ‘nobles’; term used by the Parthians to describe themselves as a people.
Asclepius: Greek god of medicine.
Asia: Roman province of western Turkey.
Athenian: Citizen of the Greek city-state of Athens.
Atlas: In Greek mythology, giant who supports the globe.
Atrium: Open court in a Roman house.
Augustus (plural Augusti): Name of the first Roman emperor, subsequently adopted as one of the titles of the office.
Ausonian: Greek name for the peoples of the Italian peninsular.
Auxiliary: Roman regular soldier serving in a unit other than a legion.
Bacchanalian: From the festival of the god of wine, Bacchus.
Bacchic: Fuelled by wine; from the religious frenzy of the worshippers of the god Bacchus.
Bactria: Ancient region lying north of the Hindu Kush and west of the Himalayas.
Ballistae (singular Ballista): Roman torsion artillery firing a bolt with great force and accuracy.
Ballistarii: Roman artillerymen, named from their weapon, the ballista.
Barbii: The Barbius family.
Basilica Aemilia: Court building on the northeastern side of the Roman Forum, originally built in 179BC and restored on several occasions in antiquity.
Basilica of Neptune: Monumental building adjoining the rear of the Pantheon, facing south.
Basilica: Roman court building and audience chamber.
Baths of Trajan: Large bathing and leisure complex dedicated by the Emperor Trajan in AD109, built on the flank of the Esquiline Hill overshadowing the adjacent Baths of Titus.
Batnae: Town in southeastern Turkey; modern Suruç.
Bay of Naxos: Named from an ancient Greek city on the eastern shore of Sicily.
Belenus: Celtic sun god and patron deity of Aquileia.
Bithynia-Pontus: Roman province along the south shore of the Black Sea.
Bona fides: Latin, literally ‘good faith’.
Bononia: Modern Bologna in northern Italy.
Borysthenes: Maximinus’s horse, named from the god of the river Dnieper in Greek mythology.
Boule: Council of a Greek city; in the Roman period made up of local men of wealth and influence.
Britannia Inferior: One of two Roman provinces of Britain, located in northern England.
Brundisium: Important port on the southeastern coast of Italy, modern Brindisi.
Bucellarii (singular Bucellarius): Literally ‘biscuit-eater’; in the later Roman Empire, units of troops raised and led by private individuals, usually governors or generals, as their personal guard.
Caecuban: A highly prized sweet white wine grown in the coastal region south of Rome.
Caelestis: Roman virgin goddess of divine balance.
Caelian: One of the seven legendary hills of Rome, lying southeast of the Roman Forum.
Caesar: Name of the adopted family of the first Roman Emperor, subsequently adopted as one of the titles of the office; often used to designate an Emperor’s heir.
Caesaraugusta: Roman town in Hispania Tarraconensis; modern Saragossa in northeastern Spain.
Caledonia: Area of Britain north of the Roman provinces; roughly modern Scotland.
Campania: Fertile region on the western coast of southern Italy much favoured as a holiday destination by the Roman elite.
Campus Martius: Latin, literally, ‘field of Mars’; name of a famous space in Rome; in general, name for a parade ground.
Capax imperii: Expression originally used by Tacitus to designate those men ‘capable of being Emperor’.
Capitoline triad: The three major deities of Roman religion: Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva.
Cappadocia: Roman province north of the Euphrates.
Capri: Island in the Bay of Naples, where the Emperor Tiberius spent his notorious retirement.
Carinae: Literally ‘the Keels’, fashionable quarter of ancient Rome on southern spur at western end of the Esquiline Hill; now S. Pietro in vincoli.
Carpathians: Mountain chain in Central and Eastern Europe, named from the ancient Carpi tribe.
Carrhae: See Historical Afterword.
Carthage: Second city of the western Roman empire; capital of the province of Africa proconsularis.
Carthaginians: Inhabitants of the city of Carthage.
Cataphracts: Heavily armoured Roman cavalry, from the Greek word for mail armour.
Census: Official lists of Roman citizens, ranked according to wealth: the equestrian census was at the top, the proletarii (proletariat) at the bottom.
Centurion: Officer of the Roman army with the seniority to command a company of around eighty to a hundred men.
Cercopes: Mythical twins renowned for cheating, thieving, and lying.
Cilicia: Roman province in the south of Asia Minor.
Cinithii: Berber tribe living in the south of modern Tunisia.
Cirta: Roman town in the province of Numidia; modern Constantine in northeastern Algeria.
Claudii: Members of the Claudius family.
Clementia: Latin, the virtue of mercy. An important slogan in imperial propaganda.
Clibanarii (singular Clibanarius): Heavily armoured cavalry, name possibly derived from the Latin for ‘baking oven’.
Clytemnestra: In Greek mythology, famed for killing her husband Agamemnon and his lover.
Cohors I Ulpia Galatarum: First Ulpian Cohort of Galatians, unit of auxiliary infantry originally recruited by the Emperor Trajan from Galatia (central Turkey), now stationed in Aquileia.
Cohors II Eufratensis: Second Euphrates Cohort, unit of auxiliary infantry raised in Mesopotamia and stationed at Carrhae.
Cohors XV Arabum: Fifteenth Cohort of Arabs, unit of auxiliary infantry stationed at Carrhae.
Cohort: Unit of Roman soldiers, usually about 500 men-strong.
Commagene: Small kingdom in southeastern Turkey first assimilated into the Roman empire in AD17 and intermittently independent until AD72.
Concordia: Deified abstraction of Imperial Accord; worshipped as a goddess
and playing an important role in imperial propaganda.
Conscript Fathers: Honorific form of address used before the Senate.
Consilium: Council, body of advisors, of a senior Roman magistrate or an Emperor.
Consul: In the Republic, the highest office in the Roman state; under the Emperors, a largely honorific and ceremonial position.
Corcyra: Greek name for the Island of Corfu.
Corinth: Ancient city in the Peloponnese, notorious for its luxurious living and prostitutes.
Cosmos: The universe as conceived of by the Greeks, an orderly, harmonious system, often thought divine in itself.
Ctesiphon: Capital of the Parthian empire, lying on the eastern bank of the Tigris river, twenty miles south of modern Baghdad in Iraq.
Curator of the Banks of the Tiber and the Sewers of the City: Senatorial office tasked with the prevention of flooding in Rome; often little more than a sinecure.
Curator of the Roads: Senatorial position tasked with the care of the roads around Rome.
Curia: The meeting house of the Senate in Rome (and of town councils in the Latin-speaking provinces); the building erected after a fire in the later third century is still standing.
Cursus Publicus: Imperial Roman postal service, whereby those with official passes could get remounts and a room for the night.
Curule Chairs: Ivory folding stool, the mark of office of important Roman officials.
Custos: Latin, literally ‘a guardian’; a male attendant would accompany an upper-class woman, in addition to her maids, when she went out in public.
Cynic: The counter-cultural philosophy founded by Diogenes of Sinope in the fourth century BC; its adherents were popularly associated with dogs (the name itself is from the Greek for ‘dog’) for their barking and snapping at contemporary morality and social customs.
Cyrenaica: Roman province of eastern Libya and the Island of Crete.
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