58. Hickey, “Fee-Taking”; van de Ven, “Public Finance.”
59. Crisp, Studies in the Russian Economy, 26–8; Babkov, “National Finances,” 184; Dmitriev, Kriticheskie issledovaniia o potreblenii alkogoliia v Rossii, 157.
60. Fuller, Strategy and Power; Pogrebinskii, Ocherki istorii finansov dorevoliutsionnoi Rossii, 176. Military outlays swallowed 30 percent of Russian government spending as of 1913. This was down from 60 percent in the eighteenth century, when the state spent next to nothing on human capital (education, health, etc.). Gatrell, Russia’s First World War, 8; Kahan, The Plow, 336.
61. Rieber, “Persistent Factors,” 315–59; LeDonne, Russian Empire and the World.
62. Daly, Autocracy Under Siege, 108–10; Spiridovich, Zapiski zhandarma, 81–2.
63. Aleksander I. Spiridovich, “Pri tsarskom rezhime,” Gessen, Arkhiv russkoi revoliutsii, XV: at 141. See also Pipes, Russian Revolution, 4.
64. Schneiderman, Sergei Zubatov and Revolutionary Marxism.
65. Gregory, “Grain Marketings and Peasant Consumption”; Goodwin and Grennes, “Tsarist Russia.”
66.Sukennikov, Krest’ianksaia revoliutsiia na iuge Rossii.
67. Jones, Socialism, 129–58; Shanin, Roots of Otherness, II: 103–7.
68. Borzunov, “Istoriia sozdaniia transsibirskoi zhelezno-dorozhnoi magistrali.”
69. Westwood, History of Russian Railways; Westwood, Historical Atlas.
70. Marks, Road to Power, 35–41.
71. Sibir’ i velikaia zhelznaia doroga, 211; Putintsev, “Statisticheskii ocherk Tomskoi gubernii,” 83–4. Siberia still accounted for 80 percent of Russian gold in the 1880s, though its share was declining.
72. Marks, Road to Power, 184, 217; McCullough, Path Between the Seas, 173, 610. Early Soviet planners saw the railroad as a precursor: Grinevetskii, Poslevoennye perspektivy Russkoi promyshlennosti, 62.
73. Kann, “Opyt zheleznodorozhnogo stroitel’stva v Amerike i proektirovanie Transsiba,” 114–36.
74. Kaufman, “Cherty iz zhizni gr. S. Iu. Witte”; McDonald, United Government, 11–30.
75. Yaney, “Some Aspects of the Imperial Russian Government.”
76. Ministerstvo vnutrennykh del; Ministerstvo finansov, 1802–1902.
77. A Ministry of State Domains (1837–94) became the Ministry of Agriculture and State Domains (1894–1905), and then the Chief Administration of Land Settlement and Agriculture (1905–1915). Sel’sko-khoziaistvennoe vedomstvo. Formally, a standalone Ministry of Agriculture existed only during the war (1915–17).
78. Yaney, “Some Aspects of the Imperial Russian Government,” 74.
79. Kuropatkin, Russian Army, I: 139–40.
80. von Korostowetz, Graf Witte, 20.
81. “Dokladnaia zapiska Witte Nikolaiu II”; von Laue, Sergei Witte, 1–4; von Laue, “Secret Memorandum.”
82. Von Laue, “High Cost.”
83. Wcislo, Tales of Imperial Russia, esp. 104–11.
84. Gurko, Features and Figures, 56–61; Wcislo, Tales of Imperial Russia, 144–53; Urusov, Zapiski tri goda, 588. See also Harcave, Count Sergei Witte.
85. Romanov, “Rezentsiia,” 55.
86. Lieven, Russia’s Rulers, 139 (citing Novoe vremia, September 9, 1915: 3).
87. Iswolsky, Recollections of a Foreign Minister, 121; Gurko, Features and Figures, 259.
88. Romanov, Rossiia v Man’chzhurii, 11, n2; Geyer, Russian Imperialism, 186–219.
89. Malozemoff, Russian Far Eastern Policy. See also Schimmelpenninck, Toward the Rising Sun.
90. Williamson, “Globalization,” 20.
91. O’Rourke and Williamson, Globalization and History.
92. LaFeber, The Clash, 67; Aydin, Politics of Anti-Westernism in Asia, 81.
93. Gann, “Western and Japanese Colonialism,” at 503.
94. Sergeev, Russian Military Intelligence, 31–52; Fuller, Strategy and Power 328–9. In 1899, one Russian official had lamented: “If Russian diplomatists had been more alert and enterprising, they might have secured a secret understanding with Japan at the time of the [Sino-Japanese] war in 1894–5 for the joint partition of the Far East.” Quoted in Lensen, “Japan and Tsarist Russia,” at 339, n9.
95. Westwood, Russia Against Japan, 22; White, Diplomacy of the Russo-Japanese War, 142–3; Nish, Origins of the Russo-Japanese War, 241–2.
96. Ferris, “Turning Japanese,” II: at 129.
97. Ukhtomskii, Puteshestvie na Vostok ego imperatorskogo vysohchestva gosudaria naslednika tsarevicha; Shin, “The Otsu Incident.”
98. McDonald, United Government, 31–75; Esthus, “Nicholas II”; Gurko, Features and Figures, 264; March, Eastern Destiny, 173–84.
99. Koda, “The Russo-Japanese War.”
100. Vpered!, January 1, 1905; Pavlovich, “SSSR i vostok,” 21–35.
101. Nicholas recorded in his diary: “Now finally the awful news about the destruction of almost the entire squadron in the two day battle has been confirmed.” Dnevnik imperatora Nikolaia II (1923), 201.
102. Lieven, Empire, 159.
103. Menning, Bayonets Before Bullets, 152–99; Nish, “Clash of Two Continental Empires,” I: 70.
104. Dnevnik Imperatora Nikolaia II 1991, 315.
105. Trusova, Nachalo pervoi russkoi revoliutsii, 28–30; Field, “Petition Prepared for Presentation to Nicholas II.”
106. Gapon, Story of My Life, 144, 180–8; Gurko, Features and Figures, 345; Galai, Liberation Movement in Russia, 239; Pankratova, Revoliutsiia, IV: 103, 811, n112; Zashikhin, “O chisle zhertv krovavogo voskresen’ia”; Ol’denburg, Istoriia tsarstvovaniia Imperatora Nikolaia II, I: 265–6.
107. Heenan, quoted in Askew, “An American View,” 43.
108. Savich, Novyi gosudarstvennyi stroi Rossii, 11–14; Daly, Autocracy Under Siege, 168–9; Verner, Crisis of Russian Autocracy, 182–217.
109. Martynov, Moia sluzhba, 59.
110. Zhordania, Moia zhizn’, 44. Troops were summoned to restore order at least 2,699 times over the first ten months of 1905 (compared with 29 times in 1900).
111. Robbins, The Tsar’s Viceroys, 230–2 (citing I. F. Koshko, Vospominania gubernatora [1905–1914 gg.]: Novgorod, Samara, Penza [Petrograd, 1916], 83–8). In July 1904, Caucasus governor-general Golitsyn had been wounded in a terrorist attack and departed. He was replaced by the energetic Count Illarion Vorontsov, a horse breeder and oil investor, who was close to the tsar and became viceroy (the post was reinstated). In 1905, Vorontsov requested permission to resign in 1905, but was compelled to stay on (until 1915).
112. Westwood, Russia Against Japan, 135, 153.
113. Tani Toshio’s secret history of the war blamed Japanese intelligence, while Robert Valliant credits Russian efforts at self-defense. Valliant, “Japan and the Trans-Siberian Railroad,” 299.
114. Fuller, Strategy and Power, 403–4; Steinberg, All the Tsar’s Men, 121.
115. Geyer, Russian Imperialism, 234–6.
116. White, Diplomacy of the Russo-Japanese War, 227ff.
117. Aydin, Politics of Anti-Westernism, 71–92 (at 73: Alfred Zimmern of Oxford University). See also Barraclough, Introduction to Contemporary History.
118. Motojiro, Rakka ryusui. The okhranka intercepted his mail and published a pamphlet, “The Seamy Side of Revolution: Japanese Funds and the Armed Uprising in Russia” (1906), documenting the colonel’s activities. Iznanka revoliutsii: vooruzhennoe vozstanie v Rossii na iaponskie sredstva (St. Petersburg: A. S. Suvorin, 1906), a 10-kopeck pamphlet. Akashi was recalled from Germany and named head of the military police of Japan’s Korea colony, where he spearheaded the kind of repression for which he was noted.
119. Roy A. Medvedev, “New Pages from the Political Biography of Stalin,�
�� in Tucker, Stalinism, 199 (at 200–1). There are 16 vershki in an arshin, which equals 28 inches.
120. Von Laue, Sergei Witte, 40.
121. Cited in Makharadze and Khachapuridze, Ocherki, 135. See also Chakhvashvili, Rabochee dvizhenie, 63.
122. The “Red Hundreds” organizers in the Caucasus included Mikho Tsakakaya, Pilipe Makharadze, Mikho Bocharidze, Budu Mdivani, and the Menshevik Silva Jibladze, as well as Jughashvili. Talakavadze, K istorii, I: 143; Parkadze, “Boevye bol’shevistskie druzhiny v Chiature v 1905 gody,” 46–50. See also Montefiore, Young Stalin, 112; and van Ree, “The Stalinist Self,” 275–6.
123. “Predislovie k pervomu tomu,” in Sochineniia, I: 10; XVII: 622–37 (Stalin’s own account, in notes recorded by Vasily D. Mochalov, at a Kremlin meeting, December 28, 1945); Service, Stalin, 54–5 (citing the unpublished Georgian-language memoirs of Sergei Kavtaradze); Tucker, Stalin as Revolutionary, 140–1.
124. “Kak ponimaet sotsial demokratiia natsional’nyi vopros?” Sochineniia, I: 32–55 (from Proletariatis Brdzola, Sept.–Oct. 1904). See also Tucker, Stalin as Revolutionary, 140–1.
125. RGASPI, f. 71, op. 10, d. 183, l. 111, cited in van Ree, Political Thought of Joseph Stalin, 69.
126. Ramishvili would be assassinated in Paris by a Soviet agent. See Chavichvili, Patrie, prisons, exil. Chavichvili (1886–1975) was a Social Democrat journalist who emigrated and worked as a journalist in connection with the League of Nations.
127. Ostrovskii, Kto Stoial, 231–6 (citing GF IML, f. 8, op. 5, d. 320, l. 2–2ob); Trotsky, Stalin, 59; Tucker, Stalin as Revolutionary, 104. At the first conference of Transcaucasus Bolsheviks in Tiflis in late November 1904, Jughashvili was among the twelve delegates. They created a separate “Caucasus Bureau” (it is not clear if Jughashvili was initially included), and discussed the upcoming April 1905 Bolshevik conference in London, called by Trotsky “the Constituent Congress of Bolshevism.” The four (Bolshevik) delegates in London from the Caucasus were Kamenev, Tskhakaya, Japaridze, and Nevsky. Jughashvili remained in Chiatura. RGASPI, f. 558, op. 4, d. 651, l. 226–7 (M. Chodrishvili); Perepiska V. I. Lenina, III: 215–22; Taratuta, “Kanun revoliutsii 1905 g. na Kavkaze”; Moskalev, Bol’shevistskie organizatsii Zakavkaz’ia Pervoi russkoi revoliutsii i v gody stolypinskoi reaktsii, 72; Ostrovskii, Kto stoial, 223.
128. RGASPI, f. 558, op. 4, d. 649, l. 361 (S. Khanoian, Zaria vostoka, January 24, 1925); op. 1, d. 938, l. 5–8; Jones, Socialism, 122; Talakavadze, K istorii, 119–20; Bibineishvili, Kamo, 70; Chavichvili, Patrie, prison, exil, 68–9, 71–9, 88–9, 92, 113, 116–7; Ostrovskii, Kto stoial, 231–6; van Ree, 271; Sochineniia, I: 99–103.
129. Getzler, Martov, 219, quoting Martov, Vpered’ ili nazad? (Geneva, 1904), 2.
130. PSS, VI: 126–7.
131. “He who has iron has bread,” a quotation from Blanqui, appeared on the masthead of Mussolini’s early socialist newspaper, Il Popolo d’Italia.
132. Lih, Lenin Rediscovered. Among Lih’s many breakthroughs, he also showed that Lenin was ultimately not so far from Kautsky, who had written in 1899: “Social Democracy is the party of the militant proletariat; it seeks to enlighten it, educate it, to organize it, expand its political and economic power by every available means, to conquer every position that can possibly be conquered, and thus to provide it with the strength and maturity that will finally enable it to conquer political power and overthrow the rule of the bourgeoisie” (87–8).
133. Ulam, The Bolsheviks, 193–4.
134. Sapir, Fedor Il’ich Dan, 50–5. Fyodor Dan, who with Martov had helped Lenin against the Bund, had also been the one to smuggle into Russia the first copies of Lenin’s What Is to Be Done? (1902), in the false bottom of a suitcase. Right through the 1940s, Dan, in emigration, saw Bolshevism and Menshevism as complementary, rather than as opposites. See Liebich, “Menshevik Origins.” The police also went after the Bund, which between June 1903 and July 1904 had nearly 4,500 members arrested. Minczeles, Histoire generale du Bund, 119.
135. Iremashvili, Stalin und die Tragodie, 21–3; Arsenidze, “Iz vospominaniia o Staline,” 235; and Tucker, Stalin as Revolutionary, 99, 133–7. “If there had been no Lenin,” Stalin himself would muse in old age, “I’d have stayed a choirboy and seminarian.” This was false, of course: Jughashvili had abandoned the choir and seminary long before he knew much, if anything, about Lenin. Mgeladze, Stalin, 82.
136. Himmer, “First Impressions Matter.” At the November 26–30, 1905, conference of the Caucasus Union of the Russian Social Democratic Workers’ Party in Tiflis, the attendees discussed the need to unify Bolsheviks and Mensheviks, and elected three delegates to the upcoming 5th Party Congress: Jughashvili, Pyotor Montin, and Giorgi Teliya. RGASPI, f. 558, op. 4, d. 655, l. 185 (G. Parkadze). The Congress was supposed to have opened in St. Petersburg, but Interior Minister Durnovó’s December 3 mass arrests of Petersburg Soviet members forced a relocation. Ostrovskii, Kto stoial, 242–5.
137. In August 1906, Lenin and Krupskaya would retreat to the safety of tsarist Finland, and then back into European exile in December 1907.
138. Stalin, “O Lenine,” reprinted in Sochineniia, VI: 52–64 (at 54). See also Souvarine, Stalin, 82; Trotsky, Stalin, 69; Dawrichewy, Ah: ce qu’on, 160, 212–3.
139. Medvedev, Let History Judge, 97. The precise circumstances of the creation of the Soviet in 1905 are a matter of dispute. Voline, Unknown Revolution; Trotsky, 1905 [1922]; Trotsky, 1905 [1971]. See also Samoilov, Pervyi sovet rabochikh deputatov.
140. Quoted in Verner, Crisis of Russian Autocracy, 234; “Perepiska Nikolaia II i Marii Fedorovny.”
141. Maksakov, “Iz arkhiva S. Iu. Vitte” and “Doklady S. Iu. Vitte Nikolaiu II,” 107–43, 144–58; Gurko, Features and Figures, 396; Verner, Crisis of Russian Autocracy, 228–33; Witte, Samoderzhavie i zemtsvo, 211. Asked in 1908 about the political changes to the autocracy, Witte is said to have replied, “I have a constitution in my head . . . but as to my heart . . .” at which point he spat on the ground. Pares, My Russian Memoirs, 184.
142. Trepov, “Vespoddaneishaia zapiska D. F. Trepova.”
143. Mehlinger and Thompson, Count Witt, 29–46.
144. Vitte, Vospominaniia [1923–24], III: 17, 41–2; Pilenko, At the Court of the Last Tsar, 97; “Zapiska A. F. Redigera o 1905 g.,” Krasnyi arkhiv, 1931, no. 14: 8. The Grand Duke, originally a supporter of repression, had had a change of heart. “Zapiska Vuicha,” in Vitte, Vospominaniia [1960], III: 22.
145. Svod zakonov Rossiiskoi imperii, I: 2; Savich, Novyi gosudarstvennyi stroi Rossii, 24–5; Ascher, Revolution of 1905, II: 63–71.
146. Borodin, Gosudarstvennyi sovet Rossii; Iurtaeva, Gosudarstvennyi sovet v Rossii; Korros, A Reluctant Parliament; Gurko, Features and Figures, 22–3. By the onset of Nicholas II’s reign, the State Council had grown to around 100 appointed men (from 35), but fewer than 40 took any active part, and the tsar was under no obligation to consult them. In total, some 215 men would be appointed to the State Council over the full reign of Nicholas II, more than two thirds of whom depended for their livelihoods on their salary, rather than inherited wealth—not really independent people.
147. McDonald, United Government, 83–6 (citing RGIA, f. 1544, op. 1, d. 5, l. 3–9 [Kryzhanovskii] and l. 270 [Witte]). See also Doctorow, “Introduction of Parliamentary Institutions.”
148. Brunck, Bismarck, 36.
149. On the ministries, see Yaney, Systematization, 286–318. Whenever Government ministers spoke to sessions of the State Duma (or the upper house State Council), they opened with the phrase “With the consent of the Emperor,” indicating that even the reporting of information was an imperial favor.
150. The drafter was Alexei Obolensky, a member of the State Council. Iuridicheskii vestnik, 11/3 (1915): 39 (A. S. Alekseev).
151. Verner, Crisis of Russian Autocracy, 434; McDonald, Unit
ed Government, 10.
152. Maslov, Agrarnyi vopros v Rossii, II: I59–60; Perrie, “Russian Peasant Movement.”
153. McDonald, “United Government,” 190–211. Witte, without the formal powers of a prime ministership, had managed to exert a kind of dominance via forceful personality in the loose Committee of Ministers (dissolved in April 1906).
154. Gerassimoff, Der Kampf, 67; Gerasimov, “Na lezvii s terroristami,” II: 139–342 (at 183–4); Vitte, Vospominaniia [2000], II: 288, III: 74–5, 619. Witte recalls the diplomat as representing Spain.
155. Witte had evidently tried to make Durnovó the deputy interior minister, but Durnovó refused. Urusov, Zapiski tri goda, 589–92; Gurko, Features and Figures, 180, 406, 411–2; Vitte, Vospominaniia 2000, III: 71–2; Daly, Autocracy Under Siege, 173–4.
156. Martynov, Moia sluzhba, 59. Martynov oversaw the Moscow okhranka from 1912 to 1917.
157. Santoni, “P. N. Durnovo,” 118–20; Ascher, Revolution of 1905, II: 22. Russia’s Fundamental Laws of 1906 were modeled on the Prussian and Japanese constitutions, both of which abjured genuine parliamentary rule. Miliukov et al., Histoire de Russie, III: 1123–4; Doctorow, “Fundamental State Law.”
158. Gerasimov, Na lezvii, 52; D. N. Liubimov, “Sobytiia i liudi (1902–1906 gg.),” RGALI, f. 1447, op. 1, d. 39, l. 464; Beletskii, “Grigorii Rasputin” no. 22: 242; Gurko, Features and Figures, 410.
159. “Nikolai II—imperatritse Marii Fedeorovne, 12 ianvaria 1906,” 187.
160. Keep, Rise of Social Democracy, 251–2; Engelstein, Moscow 1905.
161. Pankratova, Revoliutsiia, V/ii: 76–7.
162. Shanin, Roots of Otherness, II: 278–9.
163. Shestakov, Krest’ianskaia revoliutsiia, 50.
164. Ascher, Revolution of 1905, II: 157–8. Peasants drafted into the army essentially re-entered serfdom: not only under the tyranny of officers, but also forced to farm and fabricate their own clothes and implements.
165. Fuller, Strategy and Power, 138–9.
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