First and foremost, Germany lost the battle against Britain because she really was not ready for war. Her economy could just about cope with a few short, sharp conflicts such as Poland, and Norway, and as the western campaign had proved to be, but nothing more. However over-mighty a formation of Junkers, Dorniers and Heinkels might appear to those watching the giant raids over southern England, the Luftwaffe was not big enough to do what it set out to achieve. Nor was the U-boat force. A staggering 352,407 tons of Allied shipping were lost to the U-boats in October – the highest toll so far. It would not always be so easy; once the Home Fleet was released from anti-invasion duty and once the Royal Navy grew some more, the convoys would be better protected. Yet what an opportunity had been missed. If between nine and fourteen submarines could wreak that much havoc, what would fifty or a hundred have done? Churchill was worried enough as it was. Had Dönitz had the boats he had been earlier promised then perhaps Britain might have been brought to her knees. Massed U-boat attacks combined with a more sensibly handled air battle could have been devastating.
The truth was that the crushing victory in France hid many of Germany’s deficiencies. Hitler was lucky to have had such inspired commanders in men like Guderian and, frankly, even Halder, who understood the potential of modern mobile warfare and the principles of concentration of force. The western campaign had come off in lightning-quick fashion because of the genius and vision of a few men and the high training of a key proportion of the army. Contributing to that success was the Luftwaffe, a large aerial force that had developed tactics and methods of directly supporting the ground troops in a way that no other nation had considered at that time. And it succeeded because the French crumbled so badly. Operationally, tactically and strategically, the French had been woeful. Their leadership was too old, too dated. Morale was poor and they made lots and lots of really bad mistakes. On paper, Germany should never have won.
It must have seemed, in June 1940, that momentum alone would force victory over Britain. Hitler never knew how close he was to achieving his goal in the last days of May, but the halt order was the first of many missed opportunities that summer. From Dunkirk onwards, when the Luftwaffe’s shortcomings were first exposed, the Germans made a catalogue of mistakes. Hitler prevaricated too long, they had no clear strategy, and they constantly, persistently, depended on incredibly faulty intelligence; the roguish Beppo Schmid had a lot to answer for. At no point did they ever have a clear picture of Fighter Command’s strength or an understanding of the Dowding System. They also singularly failed to exploit the strengths of what resources they did have. The handling of the fighter arm, for example, was grossly incompetent. Nor did they look after their most precious asset of all: the men. Finally, they suffered from what in modern military parlance is known as mission creep. Their primary stated aim was to destroy the RAF, yet the constant switching of tactics, the differing uses of aircraft, and the move from targeting airfields to London were all indicative of a high command that had no real strategic idea of how it was to achieve its goals. Only for around two weeks, towards the end of August and at the beginning of September, did it really make any attempt to do this. Sending over a multitude of small and medium-sized raids stretched Fighter Command to its limits, but these raids were unable to make a big enough impact. Massed raids could deliver that impact, but with increased scale the quantity of raids had to be sacrificed, and suddenly Fighter Command could anticipate the attacks more effectively and consequently bring more fighters to bear. Had the Luftwaffe had many more aircraft, it would have been a different matter. But it did not.
Luftwaffe failings, however, should not detract from the achievement of the RAF in the summer of 1940. Had it not had such a superb defensive system, and had it not had such inspired and brilliant leaders, the Luftwaffe would still have prevailed, no matter how valiant or skilful the pilots. The Luftwaffe’s shortcomings were only revealed because the RAF was handled so much better. ‘The Few’ have rightly been considered heroes – they were to a man – and as the first line of defence their stand against the Luftwaffe was every bit as magnificent as the myth would have it. Yet it is a mistake to view the Battle of Britain in isolation as RAF Fighter Command versus the Luftwaffe. It was a far more collective effort that saved Britain in 1940. The fledgling performance of Bomber Command, for example, has traditionally been viewed as being so ineffective to have been almost risible, yet it played a crucial part in the battle, taking the fight into Germany, showing the world that German invincibility was a sham, and contributing to the battle to grind down the Luftwaffe. The relentless attacks on German airfields wore down Luftwaffe crews far more than has ever been appreciated.
But everyone played their part: the navy, the army, the auxiliary services, the Home Guard, the groundcrews, the Observer Corps, the civilian repair units – Britain’s defiance in the summer of 1940 was a collective effort. The pilots of Fighter Command may have been the first line, but there were many thousands more who contributed to Britain’s victory.
Neville Chamberlain died on 9 November, after losing his fight with cancer. He had finally resigned from the Cabinet a month earlier, accepting he was too ill to be of any further use to Churchill. History has been too unkind to Chamberlain. Thanks to him, the RAF received the funding it needed in the 1930s when he was still Chancellor of the Exchequer, while no matter how distasteful the Munich agreement may have been, the postponement of war certainly gave Britain the chance to fight back in 1940. Nor, after Munich, did Chamberlain appease any more. He was not the right Prime Minister for war, however, yet once forced from office he proved an invaluable colleague to Churchill and, at the end of May, helped ensure that Britain fought on. At his funeral at Westminster Abbey, Churchill delivered a eulogy that even today can still bring a lump to the throat. ‘The only guide to a man is his conscience,’ he said, ‘the only shield to his memory is the rectitude and sincerity of his actions. It is very imprudent to walk through life without this shield, because we are so often mocked by the failure of our hopes and the upsetting of our calculations; but with this shield, however the fates may play, we march always in the ranks of honour.’ Chamberlain, he said, never failed to act with anything other than perfect sincerity and with the very best of ideals. ‘Herr Hitler,’ the Prime Minister concluded, ‘protests with frantic words and gestures that he has only desired peace. What do these ravings and outpourings count before the silence of Neville Chamberlain’s tomb?’
It was oratory like this that helped Churchill win over the nation and stem the panic wrought by Germany’s incredible victory in France. From the moment he became Prime Minister, Churchill’s leadership was superb. He alone had the vision, drive and energy to deliver Britain from the mire of France and Dunkirk. While Hitler dithered, Churchill showed steely resolve. It is hard to think of another man who could have given Britain the will to carry on during those dark days of May and June. He was a great man, but never more so than during the summer of 1940, Britain’s darkest and finest hour.
In 1940, Britain won the Battle of Britain, but she had not yet won the war. There was still a very long way to go. Although Roosevelt had gained his third term, it was another thirteen months before the United States finally joined the fight, and in that time Churchill and Britain faced one disappointment after another. Not until the end of 1942 had the tide begun to turn, by which time the grotesque folly of Hitler’s invasion of the Soviet Union had become apparent. The Battle of Britain had forced Hitler to act against Russia sooner than he had originally planned – before he was ready. Once again, his gamble failed, and Germany’s fate was sealed.
It was over the Soviet Union that many Luftwaffe pilots began to amass truly astonishing scores. Günther Rall went on to become the third-highest-scoring fighter ace of all time, with 275 victories, and later became a general in the post-war Luftwaffe. He died in October 2009. Dolfo Galland also survived the war, by which time he was a general with 104 victories – he had reached his fiftieth at the en
d of October 1940. Like Günther Rall he joined the post-war Luftwaffe and became friends for life with Douglas Bader and Bob Stanford-Tuck. He died in 1996. Siegfried Bethke remained on the Western Front, but in the summer of 1942 suffered serious injuries in a flying accident that halted his flying career. Surviving the war, he died in 2003. Another high-scoring ace was Hans-Ekkehard Bob, who amassed sixty victories, and ended the war flying Me 262 jets under Dolfo Galland. He became a successful post-war businessman, returning to Freiburg, where he lives to this day. He also still flies, and drives a convertible VW Beetle with ‘JG 54’ on the number plate.
Both Julius Neumann and Ulrich Steinhilper remained POWs in Canada until the end of the war, although Ulrich made two escape attempts. After the war, Julius was reunited with his teddy bear mascot, and became a lawyer. He died in 2009. After his return to Germany, Ulrich joined IBM, becoming a pioneer of the word processor. He died in October 2009. Rudi Miese was also shot down, only a month after finally becoming operational, and spent the rest of the war as a POW. He died in March 2009.
Hajo Herrmann later joined the Luftwaffe staff and then established the Wilde Sau – ‘Wild Boar’ – night-fighter unit. Flying single-engine FW 190 fighters, they provided a very effective night defence over Germany towards the end of the war. He was later captured by the Russians and imprisoned for ten years, after which he returned to Germany and became a lawyer, defending many former Nazis accused of war crimes. He lives in Düsseldorf. Peter Stahl went on to serve in Russia, where he bailed out sixty miles behind lines and made it back to safety. He was then posted to the Mediterranean and served in North Africa and Italy, before ending the war as a commander in KG 200, the Luftwaffe’s sabotage wing.
Of the British pilots, Bee Beamont went on to become one of the RAF’s most successful fighter pilots, pioneering the Hawker Typhoon, later commanding 609 Squadron, and becoming a leading ace at shooting down V1 and V2 rockets. He developed the trick of tipping German rockets by knocking them with a wing and thus making them hit the ground early, away from London. After the war, he continued in the RAF, later becoming a successful test pilot. He died in 2001. Billy Drake also had a highly successful wartime career, and was present at the German surrender in Reims on 7 May 1945. He remained with the RAF, retiring first to Portugal and then later returning to England. He lives in Devon. No less successful was Tom Neil, who later survived a long tour on Malta, then went on to command 41 Squadron. After a brief spell instructing, he was seconded to the US air force, took part in the Normandy invasion and then briefly saw action in Burma. Post-war, he became a test pilot and then later served at the British Embassy in Washington. He retired to Norfolk, where he still lives.
Tony Bartley later commanded 111 Squadron in North Africa and married the actress Deborah Kerr. Moving to Hollywood, he spent some years as a scriptwriter and producer, having his own production company as well as working as an executive for both CBS and Associated Rediffusion. Later remarrying, he moved back to his native Ireland with his second wife. He died in 2001. Pete Brothers also had a successful wartime career, and post-war remained in the RAF, rising to the rank of Air Commodore. He died in December 2008. Jimmy Corbin rejoined 66 Squadron in October 1940, was later commissioned and flew in North Africa. After the war he returned to teaching and still lives in Maidstone.
Sadly, David Crook did not survive. After leaving 609 Squadron in November 1940, he became an instructor. In December 1944, however, he began training for high-level reconnaissance and it was during a flight off the coast of Scotland on the 18th that his Spitfire suddenly dived down from 30,000 feet straight into the North Sea. It is not known for sure what caused his death, but his body was never recovered.
No squadron shot down more German aircraft in the battle than 303 Kociuszko Squadron. The Poles became legendary fighters – as did the Czechs – and continued to fight with the RAF until the end of the war. Jan Zumbach survived, but with no Poland to return home to continued flying, mostly as a mercenary in Africa. He passed away in 1986.
Of the bomber pilots, Arthur Hughes survived the war and remained in the RAF, retiring as a Group Captain. He died in 1993. Larry Donnelly went on to win the DFM and, towards the end of the war, won his pilot’s wings. He remained in the RAF for a further twenty years before retiring to Cumbria, where he died in 2007. Andrew Jackson completed three tours on bombers, was demobbed in 1946 and returned to his pre-war career as a surveyor in Edinburgh. He was still living there when he passed away in January 2009.
Günther Prien and his crew of U-47 were lost at sea on 7 March 1941, having sunk over thirty Allied ships at more than 200,000 tons. Rolf Hilse, however, survived – one of only very few U-boat crewmen serving in 1940 to make it through the war. After the glory days of 1940 and 1941, German submarine losses began to mount – their golden opportunity had passed, as Allied tactics, numbers and anti-submarine devices steadily improved. From being highly effective hunters, the U-boats became the hunted. Not for nothing were they known as ‘Iron Coffins’. Of around 40,000 who went to sea in the U-boats, 30,000 never returned. The Schnellboote crews fared somewhat better, and amongst those who survived the war was Bobby Fimmen, who ended up a Korvettenkapitän on the Kriegsmarine staff. After the war, he joined the family electrical business in Wittenberge, which his son now runs. He died in May 2001.
Of those serving in the Royal Navy, Joe Steele left after the war, becoming a dock worker in Liverpool and then London before retiring back to Merseyside. He died in March 2010. Andrew Begg also survived the war, including one of the most notorious convoys of them all, Operation PEDESTAL, to relieve the besieged island of Malta.
Of those in the army, Siegfried Knappe went on to fight in Russia and Italy and then served on General Helmuth Weidling’s staff in Berlin during the final days of the war. Captured by the Russians, he was released in 1949 and emigrated to the United States. He died in December 2008. Hans von Luck took part in the invasion of the Soviet Union and later served with Rommel in the Western Desert and fought on throughout the North Africa campaign. He also served in Normandy during the invasion in 1944, and won the Knight’s Cross. Captured by the Russians at the end of the war, he eventually returned to Germany and published his memoirs. He died in 1997.
Stan Fraser was posted overseas to Malta before the end of the Battle of Britain and later commissioned in the Middle East before returning to north-west Europe towards the end of the war. Demobbed in 1946, he rejoined his pre-war firm of paint manufacturers in Liverpool, and eventually ran his own business in north Wales. He lives there still. Sid Nuttall later joined the 1st Airborne Division, serving in North Africa and Italy and then joined the SAS in north-west Europe. He survived the war. Norman Field also later served in the airborne forces in North Africa and Italy, although having recovered from his wound at Dunkirk, he was initially recruited to join and develop the Auxiliary Units in Kent, a clandestine force of saboteurs trained to harass the enemy should the invasion have taken place, and then served on Montgomery’s staff. Later he was involved in the planning of the airborne landings for D-Day and Arnhem, before being asked to join General Matthew Ridgway’s staff for the Rhine crossing, and later took part in the liberation of Copenhagen. Retiring from the army as Lieutenant-Colonel in 1948 owing to ill-health, he set up a highly successful mushroom farm and became an acclaimed sculptor. He died in September 2009.
Douglas Mann later joined the army, landing on Gold Beach on D-Day, commanding a ‘DD’ Sherman tank squadron. He was almost immediately shot, but recovered and went out to north-west Europe again, only to be wounded a second time. After the war, he returned to farming, eventually settling on a farm in south-west Wiltshire, where he still lives. John Wilson also survived the war, despite also being twice wounded. He fought through most of the Italian campaign, and remained in the army after the war, finally retiring in 1973. He now lives near his old school in Marlborough.
In Germany, Else Wendel remarried, was reunited with her children and briefl
y found happiness, only to lose her husband in the dying days of the war. She remained in Berlin after the war and returned to her prewar career as a social worker. Hilda Müller continued working for Siemens and also remained in Berlin right to the very end of the war. After the war, she became a kindergarten teacher and lives in Berlin to this day. William Shirer left Berlin in December 1940, and headed back to the United States. Returning to Europe to report on the Nuremberg Trials, he later wrote his masterpiece, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, which was published in 1960.
In Britain, Harold Nicolson left the Government in 1941, remaining a backbencher for the rest of the war until losing his seat in the July 1945 election. He continued to write a number of books, and contributed journalism to various newspapers and magazines. Olivia Cockett remained in London throughout the war. She never did marry Bill Hole, but the two did become partners, retiring to Dorset, where she changed her name by deed poll to ‘Hole’. She died in 1998. After the war, Daidie Penna trained as a teacher and taught art at a school in Epsom until she retired. Daidie passed away in 1969. RV Jones remained in intelligence until the end of the war. He introduced the dropping of metal foil – or ‘chaff’ – from aircraft to confuse German radar and later headed a team to target German long-range weapons, developing what became known as the Double Cross system. After the war, he left intelligence and became Professor of Natural Philosophy at Aberdeen University. He died in 1997. Cecil Beaton continued to work for the Ministry of Information and then returned to his pre-war career as a fashion photographer. He also designed a number of theatrical sets as well as costumes for films, including those for My Fair Lady. Later knighted, he died in 1980.
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