by Bill McLain
This new fashion quickly spread to other countries. English gentlemen always wore some type of cloth around their necks, the more elegant the better. Cravats were fashioned from plaid, embroidered linen, and other fabrics. They were often decorated with ribbon bows, lace, and tasseled strings. Some were so high a man couldn’t turn his head, while others were so thick they could stop a sword thrust.
In the United States, colonists wore colorful bandannas around their necks rather than cravats. Eventually the cravat shrunk in size and evolved into the modern necktie.
Although most men cannot tie all the common necktie knots, it could be worse. In the 1800s there were 32 different ways to tie a cravat.
FACTOIDS
Until the Civil War, virtually all neckties were imported from Europe except for the “bola” tie that was popular in the Southwest.
When Napoleon wore black silk handkerchiefs around his neck during a battle, he always won. At Waterloo, he wore a white cravat and lost the battle and his kingdom.
The name for the common “four-in-hand” knot comes from English coach drivers who used the knot to handle the reins of a four-horse team.
In 1917 Dr. Walter G. Walford wrote a discourse, “Danger in Neckwear,” which claimed that tight collars and ties made people ill by retarding blood flow to the brain.
DID YOU KNOW?
In addition to the standard tie we are familiar with, there is also the bola tie, which is usually a braided leather cord with silver tips at the end. The center of the tie is a brooch, often handcrafted from silver and turquoise, that holds the cords together. The bola tie is so popular in the Southwest that it is Arizona’s official state emblem.
The name comes from the leather “bolas” used by the gauchos in Argentina. A bola has three leather straps, each wrapped around a large stone. The gauchos use bolas for hunting rheas and ostriches. When thrown properly, the weighted cords wrap themselves around the bird’s legs so it cannot move. (We didn’t have the heart to say that the bola constricts or ties the bird’s legs.)
More questions? Try these websites.
FASHION IN THE 1900S
http://www.vintagevixen.com/html/fashion_history.htinl
This fascinating site covers lady’s fashions in the first seven decades of the twentieth century, including the Gibson girl, flappers, and hippies. Detailed descriptions of the fashions of each decade are included.
CLOTHES IN THE 1800S
http://history1800s.miningco.com/msubclothing.htm
Interesting Web pages that describe lady’s fashions in the 1800s, including drawings of what a Victorian lady wore and a brief mention of Amelia Jenks Bloomer (creator of the bloomers).
ALL ABOUT SHOES
http://www.designershoes.com/about_footwear.htm
Covers many aspects of shoes, including tips on shoe care, hints for a proper fit, a footwear glossary, and interesting facts and quotes. There are also links to other sites, including footwear of the Middle Ages and a history of Viking footwear.
Finance
Does the government still print two-dollar bills? (They’re so unlucky that no one uses them anymore.)
In spite of what many people think, the Treasury Department still prints two-dollar bills. However, when a new bill is created it often takes quite some time for people to adjust to it. For some reason, the two-dollar bill has never become popular. Many people consider it unlucky, while others still believe it is not valid currency.
Although the government can create and print new types of bills, it cannot force banks, businesses, or individuals to use them. If bank customers request a denomination in sufficient quantity, the government will quickly supply the bills needed to stock the bank vaults.
U.S. bills are currently available in denominations of $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, and $100. Up until 1969 the government also produced bills in denominations of $500, $1,000, $5,000, and $10,000. These bills were used primarily for transferring funds between banks. With the electronic transfers used today these larger bills are no longer needed. However, they are still legal tender and may occasionally be found in circulation even today.
The largest bill ever printed was a $100,000 gold certificate issued in 1934. These bills were used only for official transactions and were never placed in circulation.
Although U.S. bills, which are sometimes referred to as “notes,” were printed and backed by the government, these are no longer printed. In 1913 Congress passed the Federal Reserve Act, which authorized Federal Reserve Banks to issue bills. These are the only bills being printed today.
FACTOIDS
The Bureau of Engraving and Printing prints approximately 22 million paper bills daily. About 95 percent of these bills replace the soiled and worn bills taken out of circulation, while the remaining 5 percent are used to increase the money supply.
The Lincoln Memorial was dedicated in 1922 with the names of the then 48 states engraved on it. However, if you look at the back of a 5-dollar bill, you will see the Lincoln Memorial and only 26 names.
If you have a bill that has been partially destroyed, you can exchange it for a new bill at any bank, provided you have more than half of the original bill.
You can order uncut sheets of bills through the mail by contacting the mail-order division of the Bureau of Engraving and Printing.
Shredded bills can be recycled into useful products such as roofing shingles or insulation. They can also be used in novelty items such as pens or jewelry, provided they are in sealed containers. However, shredded bills are sold only to companies that can buy all the shredded bills produced in one year.
All bills are printed on paper that has red and blue fibers embedded in it. It is against the law for any person or firm other than companies authorized by the U.S. government to make this type of paper.
DID YOU KNOW?
Because color copiers are so popular today, U.S. bills are now printed with a number of features to deter counterfeiting.
A clear polyester thread is imbedded vertically to the left of the seal in all bills except the one-dollar bill. The denomination of the bill is printed along the length of this thread and can be read from either the front or the back of the bill by holding it up to the light.
A line of microprinting will eventually be printed on the rim of the portrait on a bill. To the naked eye, it will appear as a solid line, but under a magnifying glass the words “The United States of America” will be visible.
Neither the thread nor the microprinting can be duplicated by today’s copiers.
If you suspect a bill is not genuine, you can ask your banker or local police department to examine it for you.
To avoid run-ins with the law, it is strongly suggested that you do not try to copy bills on your office copy machine. To do so is a felony and can result in a fine, prison, or both. People who copy paper money with a color copier are almost always apprehended.
What does the information on a U.S. penny represent? (A penny saved is a penny earned.)
The front side of today’s penny, unchanged since 1959, shows the head of President Abraham Lincoln, the sixteenth president of the United States.
Above the image is the phrase “In God We Trust,” with the word “Liberty” to the left. The Coinage Act of 1792 decreed that each U.S. coin must have “an impression emblematic of Liberty,” a mythical female figure that appeared as the symbol of the United States during colonial times.
The date the coin was minted also appears on the front of the penny. A single letter beneath the date indicates the U.S. mint that produced it. If no letter appears beneath the date, it means it was minted at the Philadelphia mint. A “D” indicates Denver, Colorado; “S” indicates San Francisco, California; and “CC” indicates Carson City, Nevada. However, today pennies are minted only in Denver and Philadelphia.
The reverse side of the penny shows the Lincoln Memorial. Above the image is the phrase “E Pluribus Unum,” which means “one out of many” or, more literally, “from many, one.�
�� This Latin phrase, attributed to the Roman poet Virgil, is on the Great Seal of the United States and on all U.S. coins. The phrase was chosen by the Continental Congress and adopted in 1782 despite the objections of Benjamin Franklin, who wanted the motto “Rebellion to Tyrants Is Obedience to God.”
FACTOIDS
During World War II, copper was needed for bullets and cartridges. In 1943 pennies were made from zinc-coated steel and were referred to as “war pennies.”
Because the mint was losing money making pennies from pure copper, the last copper penny was minted in 1981. Since then, all pennies have been made from copper-coated zinc. Older pennies are 95 percent copper; modern pennies are 2.4 percent copper.
The first coin with the words “United States of America” was a penny coined in 1727. It also had the simple motto “Mind Your Own Business.”
The penny accounts for two thirds of all coins minted in the United States.
Since its inception, the U.S. Mint has produced so many pennies that, when lined up edge to edge, they would circle the earth 137 times.
The penny was the first U.S. coin with an image of a historic figure, President Abraham Lincoln, who has been on the penny since 1909, the one hundredth anniversary of his birth.
DID YOU KNOW?
In colonial America, it was quite common to find coins in circulation from Great Britain, Portugal, Spain, France, and Germany. Items such as livestock and local crops were also used as trade items. This variety of trade goods not only led to confusion, but slowed trade and economic growth.
As early as 1776, Thomas Jefferson became a strong advocate for a unified system of coins, but it wasn’t until 16 years later that the Mint Act was authored by Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton. This act also authorized construction of the first mint in Philadelphia.
Where are all the billions of pennies that have been minted for the past 215 years and the 136 billion that are currently in circulation?
With 75 percent of the population admitting they save coins at home, chances are that there are thousands of jars full of shiny pennies gracing the shelves of many a home in the United States. You may have a few yourself.
How much gold does the United States store in Fort Knox? (All that glitters is not gold.)
Founded in 1918, Fort Knox, known as the home of mounted warfare, is a military base, which in 1940 became a training center for tank warfare. Most people equate Fort Knox with the U.S. Bullion Depository, which houses the gold reserves of the United States, but it is famous for its training of armored personnel. The depository contains approximately 315 million troy ounces of gold. At the official government price of $42.222 per troy ounce, the gold in the vault is worth $13 billion. At a market price of $300 an ounce, the gold would be worth $94.5 billion.
The U.S. Treasury Department started construction of the Bullion Depository at Fort Knox in 1936 and opened it in 1937. Designed to hold the bulk of the country’s gold, it was built for maximum security. The depository is a solid, square, bomb-proof structure with mechanical and electronic protective devices.
During World War II the depository was used to safeguard such priceless items as the English crown jewels and the Magna Carta. The original Constitution, Bill of Rights, Declaration of Independence, and the draft of Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address were also kept there during the war. These documents were removed in 1944 and put on public display in the Library of Congress.
The fort was named after Major General Henry Knox, who was artillery chief for the Continental Army during the American Revolution. He was also the first U.S. Secretary of War.
FACTOIDS
If all the gold in the entire world were compressed into a single cube it could easily be placed under the Eiffel Tower. It would form a cube about 20 yards on each side.
It is rarer to find a one-ounce gold nugget than a five-carat diamond.
Although ancient cultures such as the Aztecs and Egyptians were known for their gold artifacts, over 90 percent of the world’s gold was discovered after the California gold rush in 1849.
It is easier to find gold than to win a state lottery.
About three tons of ore must be mined and processed to produce a single ounce of gold.
One cubic foot of gold weighs about 1,000 pounds.
Gold is extremely malleable and can be hammered into sheets so thin that a one-inch stack of sheets would require 200,000 sheets of gold. A single ounce of gold can be hammered into a sheet covering 100 square feet.
Gold will not tarnish, corrode, or rust. Gold-leafed church towers hundreds of years old still shine as if they were new. The mask of the Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamen was still bright and shiny when it was found even though it was about 4,000 years old.
DID YOU KNOW?
What is true or pure gold? Pure gold is too soft to be used for jewelry so it is usually alloyed with copper, silver, nickel, or some other metal to give it strength and durability. Adding these metals to gold can give the gold a rose, green, or white hue.
Gold is measured in “karat” weights. Some typical karats are:
24 karat = 100 percent gold
18 karat = 75 percent gold
14 karat = 58.5 percent gold
10 karat = 41.6 percent gold
The higher the karat weight, the more valuable the jewelry. In the United States, jewelry must be at least 10 karats to be called gold.
According to U.S. law, all gold jewelry must be marked with the karat weight. This mark is usually on the inside of rings and on the clasps of necklaces or bracelets.
A word of warning. Other countries use different standards for gold. For example, in Mexico it is legal to call an item gold if it is at least 8 karats.
Why are gasoline prices listed to three decimal places, such as $1.479 per gallon? (Pumping up prices at the pump?)
Many years ago gasoline taxes were less than a cent per gallon. The oil companies simply added the required tax to the current price per gallon. For example, if the tax was nine tenths of a cent, or $0.009 and the price of gasoline was $0.25 per gallon, then the two added together became $0.259. Over a period of time this practice became a custom.
The price of gasoline is determined by the price of crude oil, refining costs, transportation and storage costs, and taxes. Taxes are often 40 percent of the cost per gallon.
Because many people feel that “gasoline is gasoline,” they wonder why some gasoline stations have lower prices than others. Actually, gasoline sold by different stations is different. Although each manufacturer must adhere to strict government regulations, many manufacturers add antioxidants, metal deactivators, corrosion inhibitors, and other elements to the gasoline. Each manufacturer has its own “package of additives.” Higher-priced gasolines have many additives, cheaper gasolines have few if any.
FACTOIDS
The first station designed to service automobiles was opened in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1907. Today there are over 196,000 service stations in the United States.
The United States produces over half of all the oil used in the country. Of the imported oil, 51 percent comes from countries in the Western Hemisphere, about 20 percent from the Middle East, 18 percent from Africa, and 11 percent from other countries.
Two gallons of recycled engine oil can generate enough electricity to run an average house for a day or run a television set for 180 hours.
It is estimated that undiscovered oil in the United States alone may exceed 200 billion barrels, which could fill the country’s needs for about 70 years at the current rate of consumption.
A new automobile in the 1960s produced almost 20 times as much pollution as a new automobile today.
In the early 1900s there was an increased search for a gasoline additive that would reduce engine “knock.” Almost every known chemical, including such substances as melted butter, were tested. Iodine seemed to be the best antiknock additive, but in 1919 aniline was found to be superior. In 1922 lead was introduced as an antiknock gasoline additive and remain
ed the preferred additive until the 1980s.
Although there has been much talk about running out of oil, new estimates indicate that there is enough oil left in the world to supply world demands for the next 60 to 95 years.
DID YOU KNOW?
Crude oil is also referred to as petroleum, which means “liquid rock.” Petroleum can be refined to produce a number of different products.
We’ve all heard of gasoline refineries that convert crude oil into gasoline. Although they look impressive and complex, the basic process of refining is quite simple. It’s similar to the process used to create distilled water in which steam from heated water is collected and cooled, turning the steam back into water without any impurities.
In an oil refinery, crude oil is first heated and the resulting vapors are transferred to a “fractionating tower” that breaks down the crude oil into different parts, or fractions. The lightest vapors rise to the top of the tower while the heavier ones stay near the bottom.
When the lightest vapors from the fractionating tower are condensed, gasoline is produced. Medium-weight vapors are condensed to produce kerosene, diesel fuel, and heating oil. The heaviest vapors are condensed to produce lubricating oil. The heavy sludge remaining at the bottom of the tower is used to make asphalt.