Manifest Destiny: HEGEMONY

by Brian Boyington

  They all reported the careless handling of shells and propellant by the Royal Navy, which emphasized rate of fire over safety. That practice allowed for the storing of the explosives in normal closets, and the stacking of them in corridors leading to the gun turrets. They speculated that the careless handling of the explosives was the likely cause of the explosions which destroyed four of the Royal Navy Dreadnoughts.

  The design issues involving the turrets which almost led to the destruction of SMS Seydlitz became a hot topic. Lt. Commander Evans confirmed that most of the same conditions existed on the Royal Navy Dreadnoughts.

  The officers recommended a thorough review of United States Navy Dreadnoughts. The new South Dakota Class battleships needed to incorporate changing the hatch mechanisms to open outward instead of inward. This would allow the hatch to be closed and dogged more efficiently. That arrangement would also prevent the spread of fire or water from reaching the rest of the ship. It would also condemn the seamen trapped behind the doors to death. However, the goal was to preserve the warship. The existing battleships would retrofit the new design when next in port.

  At Annapolis, in recognition for distinguished service at Dogger Bank and the Naval War College, Commanders Thomas Quelley, David Evans and Robert Treat are appointed as Executive Officers of South Dakota Battleships. Commander Evans assigned to USS South Dakota; Commander Treat assigned to the USS Massachusetts and Commander Quelley to USS North Carolina. Lt. Commander Orr is promoted to Commander and appointed to assume command of the Protected Cruiser USS Chattanooga. The four friends and their wives attend a celebratory dinner before leaving to their new assignments.

  Chapter 27

  With the beginning of 1915 word reached Berlin that the allies captured all of Germany’s possessions in Pacifica. On August 23, 1914, the Japanese, honoring their treaty with Great Britain, declared war on Germany. On August 30 the Japanese landed troops in China and attacked the German Naval Base at Tsingtao. By the end of September, the Japanese captured the base.

  In October, a combined Australian and New Zeland naval forces captured German Samoa, German New Guniea, the Bismark Islands, and Nauru. Later, the Japanese navy captured the German colonies in the Marshall and Caroline Islands.

  German colonies in Africa came under assault. The Royal Navy prevented Germany from providing support. The Germans understood that nothing could be done to change that situation.

  The German response to the loss of their Pacifica and African colonies was to propose the Nordic Union diplomatically. King Gustav V of Sweden and his Foreign Secretary, Knut Wallenberg were receptive to the plan put forward by the German Foreign Minister Gottlieb von Jagow. This plan would foster a Swedish dominated union between Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. The three nations previously declared their neutrality in August 2014. King Gustav, Prime Minister Hjalmar Hammarskjold, and Wallenberg demurred as such a union was not possible without a causus belli from Great Britain.

  Von Jagow understood but quietly kept up the pressure. Separately, Denmark and Sweden agreed to mine the three narrow straights which permitted access from the North Sea to the Baltic Sea. The Danes mined Storebaelt and Lillebaelt. The Swedish mined Oresund. The mining effectively prevented the Royal Navy’s access to the Baltic Sea.

  The British Foreign Office could accept the mining, due to the proximity of Denmark and Sweden to Germany. Diplomatically, Britain actively tried to separate Norway from its Scandinavian neighbors. After all, Norway only secured its independence from Sweden in 1905.

  British efforts met with resistance. Even though Norwegian sympathies lay with Great Britain, extensive inter-county trade linked the economies of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. Separation would bring severe economic disadvantages to Norway with little benefit in return.

  On May 1, German diplomats attending a banquet in Spain leaked the plans for the Nordic Union. When the news broke, Great Britain demanded Norway, Sweden, and Denmark reject such a union. The three nations denied such a union existed, but could not deny the existence of negotiations to create that union.

  The Royal Navy responded by occupying the Norwegian port of Narvik with a garrison of several thousand Royal Marines. Ostensibly, this action secured the Royal Navy’s convoy route to Murmansk, Russia. However, the strategic location of Narvik, at the head of the Ofot Fjord, provided the Royal Navy with deep water, ice-free port. That fact alone dominated the decision to justify the occupation

  Sweden, Denmark, and Norway demanded a British withdrawal. When Britain refused, the Swedish Prime Minister, Hammarskjold withdrew his opposition to the creation of the Nordic Union. The Union announced armed neutrality and banned imports and exports to Great Britain while maintaining diplomatic relations.

  Diplomatically, the ambassadors of all three countries tried to get the United States to negotiate a settlement with Great Britain. President Taft assigned Secretary of State Philander Chase Knox to conduct the negotiations. Knox was no regular political appointee. He professionalized the diplomatic services and tightly controlled U.S. foreign policy. Knox extended the merit system of selection and promotion from the Consular Service to the Diplomatic Service. He pursued an aggressive role in encouraging and protecting U.S. investments abroad.

  On June 15, Knox invited the British Ambassador and the Ambassadors from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden to the Resort Hotel in Bretton Woods, NH. Attendees at the initial banquet included the Governor, Rolland Spaulding, The United States Ambassador to Norway Lantis Swenson, Congressman Cyrus Adams, Congressman Raymond Stevens, and the two United States Senators Henry Hollis and Jacob Gallinger. Local dignitaries and their wives also attended to get a taste of foreign diplomacy.

  Before negotiations could begin, positions had hardened. Originally, the residents of Narvik treated British Royal Marines as a curiosity. However, incidents between the locals and the Marines escalated into protest riots, which the Marines suppressed causing numerous casualties. Soon armed snipers began shooting at sentries. The Marines responded with aggressive patrols and burned the farms of suspected snipers. Norwegian Army units then moved into defensive positions cutting off access to Narvik other than by sea. The presence of the Army prevented further sniper attacks. However, the initial curiosity was now seething resentment, and the initial Norwegian goodwill towards Great Britain evaporated.

  Bi-lateral negotiations began on June 16. During opening statements, Norway’s Ambassador demanded an unconditional British withdrawal, calling it an invasion. The British Ambassador, Sir Cecil Spring Rice rejected the demand, indicating the occupation was temporary, and only to protect the United Kingdom’s convoy routes to Russia. He asserted that the United Kingdom did not have territorial designs on any Norwegian territory.

  The Swedish and Danish ambassadors stood firmly with Norway. Ambassador Lantis shuttled between the delegations attempting to secure a time frame for British withdrawal. Secretary of State Knox invited Sir Cecil to a private lunch. There he outlined the disadvantages to the Crown due to their occupation of Narvik. Knox began:

  “Sir Cecil, the non-belligerent world views your occupation of Narvik as an invasion of a non-aligned country. I understand the Crown’s view is that the Nordic Union precipitated the occupation. However, the facts of the matter demonstrate otherwise. The union consummated itself following the occupation, and the Crown’s refusal to withdraw.

  In the United States, public opinion views Great Britain as the aggressor, and the Norwegian people as the victims. Newspaper editorials are moving towards, and possibly leading that public opinion. The reality is there is little likelihood that the High Seas Fleet would be capable of challenging the Royal Navy’s dominance in the North Sea. Submarines can and do break through. However, that is not enough to justify your actions.”

  Sic Cecil replied: “The High Seas Fleet has demonstrated the capability for offensive actions. We swallowed a bitter pill at Dogger Bank. Do I take from your comments that the United States is siding with the Nordic Block”?

/>   Secretary Knox stated: “Not at all. I am merely commenting on the public opinion of non-aligned states; and the switch in public opinion in the United States which previously favored the allies. I do not equate Germany’s actions in Belgium with the Royal Marines actions in Narvik. However, the newspaper stories and editorials are beginning to lean in that direction. If the Crown wants to retrieve the situation, the time for compromise is now.”

  Sir Cecil harrumphed then asked: “What is the position of the United States in this war? More importantly, what plans does your administration have moving forward”?

  Knox replied: “The answer to both questions is the same. We have no abiding interest in the outcome of your war; which is a European issue and should be settled one way or the other by the European powers. The winners and losers will still have the 3,000 miles wide the Atlantic Ocean separating us, and the United States Navy will enforce that barrier. We will not tolerate the war spreading into North America. However, our diplomatic services are available if a negotiated settlement is deemed to be desirable.”

  The conversation then turned to personal matters, and shortly the lunch meeting ended. Sir Cecil asked: “Secretary Knox will you share our conversation with the ambassadors from Norway, Sweden, and Denmark.”

  Knox replied: “Only in general, not is substance. I could not be a fair arbitrator if either side felt I favored one side or the other.” With that, both men drove off in separate cars. On June 26, with little substantive agreement, the conference adjourned, and the diplomats returned to Washington DC to cable their respective governments, and to receive directives.

  On June 28, Secretary Knox met with President Taft and the Cabinet. Taft expressed his disappointment with the lack of progress. He hoped the British would be more amenable to compromise, as for the moment they held the stronger hand. Even if the Nordic Block nations declared war on the United Kingdom, combined, they could do little to alter the balance of power on the continent.

  The Secretary of the Navy, George von L. Meyer asked to be recognized. President Taft nodded, and Secretary Meyer began:

  “Mr. President, I am concerned that the Royal Navy will try to occupy Greenland’s port city of Godthab and appropriate Greenland from the Danes. I realize that Greenland does not have significant strategic value to the British. However, Greenland could be used as a bargaining chip to put pressure on Denmark. It will also bring the specter of war into North America.”

  President Taft asked Secretary Knox if during the negotiations the Danish Ambassador Olaf Hastrup voiced concerns. Knox replied: “The topic did not arise, as we were dealing with the occupation of Narvik. However, I will inquire about his concerns, and if Denmark might need our assistance.”

  The next day, Knox invited Ambassador Hastrup for lunch. During the meeting, Knox stated: “Mr. Ambassador, the Secretary of the Navy raised concerns that the Royal Navy may attempt to occupy Greenland as a bargaining chip in negotiations. Let me assure you that the United States will not tolerate an occupation of Greenland.”

  After a pause, Knox continued: “Denmark is neutral, and so are we. The United States will not allow the war to intrude on North America and is prepared to guarantee the sovereign Danish authority over Greenland. All you government needs to do is make a formal request.”

  On July 7, Ambassador Hastrup requested a meeting with Knox. He brought two letters. The first requested that the United States act as protector of Danish authority in Greenland. The second letter directed to the Royal Inspector of Greenland Carl Frederick Harries instructing him to cooperate with the United States Navy to preserve Danish sovereignty over Greenland.

  On July 20, a battle group including the USS Connecticut, three destroyers, and a transport ship anchored in Godthab. The transport contained two companies of United States Marines, construction materials to erect housing, and supplies for 90-days. The same day, during a news conference with Secretary of State Knox, the Danish Ambassador Olaf Hastrup announced the request by the Danish government for a United States protectorate to preserve Danish sovereignty over Greenland. American military forces protecting Greenland also sent a strong message to the British that the United States would forcibly object to any attempt to bring the war to North America.

  Chapter 28

  Over the next two years, trench warfare reigned supreme on the Western Front. The allies and the Germans launched numerous attacks and counter-attacks, resulting in over four million casualties. However, all the action did not move the front lines. The trenches provided a war of attrition which favored the defense.

  In 1916 the British introduced tanks in an attempt to break the deadlock at Somme. After advances of 2 miles, the tanks are bogged down in deep mud. The Germans use their light 37mm field pieces as anti-tank guns. Remnants of three light artillery platoons, led by Corporal Adolph Hitler destroy the ten-tank spearhead of the thinly armored tanks. The tanks are slow, averaging three to five miles-per-hour over the muddy battlefield. Machine gunners pin down the British infantry. German reinforcements arrive and drive the British infantry out of the German trenches, recovering all the lost ground. Corporal Hitler is killed in action and posthumously awarded the Iron Cross.

  With millions of men serving in the armies, only the very young, elderly, the infirm, and women are available to work. The economies of England, France, Germany, and Austria-Hungary were grinding to a halt. Rationing was everywhere, and shortages of basic commodities including coal for heat, flour for bread, and fresh meat keep growing. Civilians wait in long lines for essential commodities, often only to find empty shelves. Discontent with political leadership is beginning to grow.

  On the Eastern Front, the Germans repulsed a Russian offensive. The counter-offensive broke through the retreating Russian Army. The Germans captured Warsaw and kept moving east along a wide front from the Baltic Sea coast to Ukraine. With the front lines on the outskirts of Riga, the German Army’s guns brought the Russian Navy base in Riga within range, resulting in the abandonment of the base.

  When the offensive finally halted to re-supply, the combined German and Austro-Hungarian armies recovered the territory gained by the Russians in Austria-Hungary. The German Army occupied all of the Russian provinces of Poland, Lithuania, and the coast of Latvia.

  With the threat from Russia greatly reduced, Austria-Hungary and Germany turned their attention to Serbia. In a two month offensive, the invaders repeatedly defeated the combined Serbian and Montenegro Army, driving it into Albania. The Albanians resisted, inflicting thousands of additional casualties. The Serbian retreat reached Albania’s Capitol Tirana. There the Italian and Royal Navy's rescued the remnants, transporting them to several Greek Isles in the Aegean Sea.

  In Russia chaos abounded. Russian armies suffered enormous defeats with over 7,000,000 casualties including dead, wounded and missing. Desertion rates averaged almost 34,000 per month. Refugees from German-controlled Poland, Lithuania, and the coast of Latvia fleeing to the east strained the economies, and famine loomed. The inefficiently operated railroad systems collapsed under the strain of military demands, and civilian needs.

  The Battle of Jutland

  Admiral Scheer attempts to lure the Royal Navy into a battle similar to Dogger Bank. Unknown to him, British Intelligence is reading his orders in real time, and bait a trap of their own in the North Sea off the Danish Jutland Peninsula.

  Admiral Beatty, aboard his flagship HMS Princess Royal led the First Battlecruiser Squadron including HMS Queen Mary, HMS Tiger, HMS Inflexible and HMS Indomitable to attack High Seas Fleet battlecruisers commanded by Admiral Hipper, aboard his flagship SMS Seydlitz. Hippers squadron also included SMS Von der Tan, SMS Moltke, SMS Derflinger, and SMS Goeben. According to plan, Hipper’s warships engage Beatty’s squadron, then retreat towards the main battle line of the High Seas Fleet. Knowing the German plans, Beatty pursues but abruptly retreated upon the destruction of the HMS Indomitable.

  Both of these battlecruisers sustained several twelve-inch hit
s from SMS Von der Tan, and SMS Derflinger, two in Q Turret. The Royal Navy did not have the benefit of hindsight from the Battle of Dogger Bank. There, flooding the magazines saved SMS Seytlitz from destruction by fires, caused by poor handling of explosives. HMS Indomitable blew up spectacularly.

  During the retreat, HMS Inflexible struck in the same manner also blew up. Admiral Beatty uttered the memorable words: “There is something wrong with our ships today.” HMS Princess Royal struck, in the same manner, is saved when an alert officer orders the flooding of the magazine.

  In hot pursuit, the German High Seas Fleet is lured northward towards the advancing Grand Fleet commanded by Admiral Jellicoe. His warships cross the High Seas Fleet “T” blasting away at the German forward ships. Admiral Scheer orders a parallel course and the two fleets’ fire furiously at each other. The High Seas Fleet is better armored, but the total weight of fire from the Royal Navy warships is unmistakable. Realizing the larger British fleet outguns him, Scheer disengages by abruptly turning away using the night as cover. Realizing that the moment is past, Admiral Jellicoe does not risk a pursuit into German minefields and instead orders the Royal Navy to head home to Scapa Flow.