by Lou Ureneck
143After the meeting, at about Horton to Sec. of State, August 9, 1920. NA 125.8731.18. The letter describes consulate offices and furnishings.
144Swarthy hard-bitten men Smyrna and After II, 742.
144The soldiers were dressed Horton, Blight of Asia. Also see “Smyrna and After, Part II,” Naval Review 4 (1923): 741.
144Their entry into the city “Smyrna and After, Part II,” 740.
146Davis was at one of the city’s Claflin Davis to Bristol, Nov. 8, 1922, with enclosure. Bristol put a series of questions to seven eyewitnesses at Smyrna. The respondents filed written responses. NA 867.48/1452.
149The only man I had ever seen Merrill Diary, Sept. 9, 1922, ASMP.
150Knauss witnessed the violence Knauss, Sept. 9, 1922. MLB.
153As he did all of this, Brock to Admiralty and Admiralty to Brock, Sept. 11, 1922, in Halpern, Mediterranean Fleet, 346, 347: “High Commissioner has been authorized to transmit to you full text of Foreign Office telegram of today’s date restating general policy of Government, main point of which is that Kemalist Army shall not be permitted at any point or under any circumstances to cross from Asia Minor into Europe.”
154At Paradise, about a thousand Amy Jennings gave her account in a diary published the following month. “Horrors of Smyrna, Latest Terrors of the East Revealed in Diary of Brave American Woman Who Witnessed Turks’ Unspeakable Atrocities,” The Evening World, Oct. 24, 1922. KFYA. See also Sara Jacob letter; and MacLachlan Diary.
156Davis, chief of the relief committee C. C. Davis to Bristol.
158He was shaken by Jennings to D. Davis.
159Jaquith reported back STANAV to NER New York, Sept. 12, 1922. MLB.
159The Times of London, which “The Massacres at Smyrna,” Times of London, Sept. 18, 1922, quoted in Oeconomos, Martyrdom.
160The Morning Post in London “Christian Refugees,” Morning Post, Sept. 11, 1922, quoted Martrydom.
161Reporter John Clayton saw the execution London Daily Telegram, Sept. 14, 1922, quoted in Oeconomos, Martyrdom.
161“We watched our …” Leyla Neyzi, “Remembering Smyrna/Izmir: Shared History, Shared Trauma.” History and Memory Special Issue: Remembering and Forgetting on Europe’s Southern Periphery 20, no. 2 (October 1, 2008): 123.
162Afterward, he returned Kinross, Atatürk, 367.
163The British consul came William Ferguson (Paradise resident), Transcript of Interview, 1965. AKJP.
163Amy Jennings, at home Amy Jennings Diary.
163The violence at Paradise “Smyrna and After, Part IV, V,” Naval Review, The Naval Society, London, 1924, Vol. 2, 355–361.
163A Turkish soldier appeared in the street Smyrna and After IV, 359.
165In his message to Bristol Hepburn to Bristol, Sept. 12, 1922. MLB.
165After their arrival the previous day Evon, “Seven Days in Smyrna.”
167No one could image without seeing Merrill Diary Sept. 1, 1922, ASMP.
CHAPTER 14: GARABED HATCHERIAN
168Events in this chapter are drawn from Dr. Hatcherian’s diary.
CHAPTER 15: NOUREDDIN PASHA
171The city’s new military commander Mango, Atatürk, 329, 330, 551.
171In November 1914, soon after Nicholas Gardner, “Charles Townshend’s Advance on Baghdad: The British Offensive in Mesopotamia, September–November 1915,” War in History 20, no. 2 (April 2013): 182–200; S. A. Cohen, “The Genesis of the British Campaign in Mesopotamia,” 1914, Middle Eastern Studies 12, no. 2 (May 1976).
172Throughout the period Hofmann et al., Genocide of the Ottoman Greeks, 97; Shenk, Black Sea Fleet, 95.
172One of his first orders of business There are several sources on the death of Chrysostomos. See especially Rene Puaux, La Mort de Smyrne, Edition De La Revue Des Balkans, Paris, 1922; Horton, Blight of Asia, 136.
173A British naval officer described him “Smyrna and After, Part I,” 568–572.
173On the last occasion, Smyrna and After Naval Review, 564.
174On Monday, September 11, Captain Hepburn The story of Hepburn’s activities continues in his report.
175The Marsovan incident was well known “On Behalf of the Armenians,” House Resolution 244, United States House of Representatives, March 7, 1922.
178As for the women, “Smyrna and After, Part IV, V,” Naval Review, 364.
178“I afterwards learned” Charles Dobson, “The Smyrna Holocaust,” an appendix to “The Tragedy of the Christian Near East,” by Lysimachos Oeconomos, The Anglo-Hellenic League, 1923. London.
178“The Turks had taken a girl of fifteen” Knauss, Simpson Ship Diary, Sept. 11, 1922.
178Cabling Bristol, Hepburn reported Hepburn to Bristol, Sept. 12, 1922. MLB.
180The bakeries remained C. D. Davis to Bristol.
180“They were, I think” Agnes Evon, “Seven Days in Smyrna,” McClure’s Magazine, Sept. 1923.Vo. 55, No. 7.
180Jaquith cabled Near East Relief STANAV to State Department, Sept. 11, 1922. MLB.
181Then there came an odd “Smyrna and After, IV,” 364.
181Throughout the previous week “Conditions in Smyrna,” Horton to State Dept., Sept. 20, 1922. NA 767.68/241.
181What, Lamb wondered Smyrna and After IV, Naval Review, 364. “Then the bombshell came later in the day. The Turkish authorities announced that they could not be responsible for the nationals after Tuesday night.”
181The apprehension of fear-ridden London Daily Telegram, Sept. 13, 1922, as quoted in Oeconomos.
183On the previous day MacLachlan memoir.
186On my round at 5 A.M. Simpson Diary, Knauss, Sept. 12,1922.
186I could see that Simpson Diary, Knauss, Sept. 12, 1922.
187In the early hours of the twelfth Simpson Diary, Knauss, Sept. 12, 1922.
187“On Tuesday, a visit …” “Smyrna and After, Part V,” 364.
CHAPTER 16 FIRE BREAKS OUT
191On Wednesday morning The wind is mentioned in many accounts, including in Hepburn’s report.
192Few patrols were in evidence Hepburn, 23.
195“The whole harbor was strewn” Arthur Duckworth (aboard HMS Iron Duke) letter to his parents, Sept 13, 1922. IWM.
195“You can say order had been restored London Daily Telegraph Sept. 15, 1922 as quoted in Oeconomos.
195Jennings had spent the night Jennings to Emmons.
196People ascended to high places Testimony from the Insurance Trial.
198Jennings drove his family Amy Jennings Diary.
199“As long as I live I shall …” R. W. Abernathy, “The Great Rescue,” collected in The Spirit of the Game by Basil Mathews, George H. Doran Co., 1926.
200Minnie Mills was the school’s director Biographical background on Minnie Mills from Personnel Card, ABCFM, ARI. Accounts of the fire and rescue appear in Evon, “Seven Days in Smyrna”; “Miss Mills Blames Turks for the Fire,” New York Times, Sept. 27, 1922; Bertha Morley, “The Smyrna Disaster,” The New Armenia 14, no. 6 (Nov.–Dec. 1922): 90; “The Burning of Our Girls’ School at Smyrna,” Life and Light for Women, Boston, Nov. 1922, 381; “Smyrna,” The Orient (newsletter), Bible House, Constantinople, Nov. 1922, Vol. IX, No. 10, 88; “Our Consul Praises Americans,” New York Times, Sept. 21, 1922; Testimony of Sister Mabel Maria Kalfa, “Report of Insurance Trial,” 65, 66; “The Angel of Discord at Smyrna,” Literary Digest, October 7, 1922, 52, 53.
201At about 4 P.M., navy ensign “Thomas Ackley Gaylord,” Lucky Bag, U.S. Naval Academy, 1920.
202Miss Christie, born “Jean Ogilvie Christie,” Ancestry.com.
205He had decided to stay Jennings to Emmons.
206The facts about the fire “Report of Insurance Trial,” ff.
207The lawyer for the insurance “Report of Insurance Trial,” 67–70.
211As it happened, the sailors “Omaha Sailor Witness of Turk Slaughter at Smyrna,” Omaha World Herald, Oct. 15, 1922.
212And there was yet another macabre element Melville Chater, “History’s Greatest Trek,” National Geographic, Nov. 1925 (Vo
l. 48).
213Horton was still missing The story of Horton’s intercession on behalf of the doctor was told by the doctor’s daughter, Ida Argyropulos, and included her unpublished biography, GHP.
213“The sea front is a seething mass” Duckworth, Sept. 13, 1922, IWM.
214“The tens of thousands of terrified” Hepburn, 27.
215“as we headed for the harbor entrance” Simpson Ship Diary, Knauss, Sept. 13, 1922.
215In Athens, Clayton filed a story “60,000 Greeks, Armenians Are Homeless,” Chicago Tribune, Sept. 15, 1922; “Fire and Massacre in City of Smryna,” London Daily Telegraph, Sept. 16, 1922, latter quoted in Oeconomos, Martyrdom.
CHAPTER 17: “ALL BOATS OVER”
216Hepburn stood on the wood-plank Details on Hepburn experience continues from his report.
217In places, the people were so tightly packed “Mr. Roy Treloar’s Story,” London Daily Telegraph, Sept. 20, 1922: “I could see the unfortunate wretches, thirteen or fourteen deep, swaying in the sweltering heat”; “Last Days of Smyrna,” Times of London, Sept. 19, 1922: “As the fire drove them towards the sea, they crowded the whole sea front.” Both quoted in Oeconomos, Martyrdom.
218What he didn’t know “Report of Trial,” 25. “Col. Mouharren Bey, agreed that a cordon of Turkish troops had been placed at the Point on the night of the fire. The object of the cordon was to keep the people concentrated where they were. There was a second cordon at the other end of the Quay near the Custom House, and the effect was to prevent the refugees from the fire escaping out the town in either direction.”
218“I sat up all last night …” Lieutenant Arthur Duckworth to his parents, Sept. 13, 14, 1922. Papers of Arthur Duckworth, IWW.
218Davis saw Turkish soldiers C. C. Davis to Bristol.
219Hepburn only had to consider Shenk, Black Sea Fleet, 102, 103. On Houston’s “meticulous” character as an officer, see Clark G. Reynolds’s On the Warpath in the Pacific: Admiral Jocko Clark and the Fast Carriers (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2005), 48.
220He nursed ambitions Lee A. Craig, “Public Sector Pensions in the United States.” http://eh.net/encyclopedia/public-sector-pensions-in-the-united-states/.
221Miss Evon and Miss Corning Evon, “Seven Days in Smyrna.”
221“The spectacle was magnificently …” “Smyrna,” September 1922. Private Papers of C. J. Howes, Doc. 2286, IWM. Howes was a chief petty officer aboard the HMS Diligence.
221The only reporter left Ward Price’s dramatic description of the fire appeared in the Daily Mail, September 16, 1922, under the headline “Two Miles of Fire, Houses Burn Like Furious Torches.” Until the fire, Price’s reporting generally minimized the killing in Smyrna. His account of the first night of the blaze stands as perhaps its most vivid description. Price went on to cover Germany in the 1930s and developed a close relationship with Hitler.
221Another British observer T. W. Bunter, Memoir, Private Papers of T. W. Bunter, Doc. 1444, IWM. Bunter was aboard the HMHS Maine at Smyrna.
223But he was not without his critics Domvile Diary, Sept. 5, 1922. “And (Brock) hesitates until it is v. difficult to be patient with the poor man. He is generally right, too, in the end, but still he is very trying.”
223Only the day before, Domvile Diary, Sept. 13, 1922.
223Nonetheless, circumstances pointed Brock to Admiralty, Sept. 11, 1922, quoted in Halpern, Mediterranean Fleet: “… Kemalists should be informed that failing satisfactory guarantees that they will make no attempt to land in Gallipoli all floating transport will be destroyed.”
224Domvile was present Domvile Diary, Sept. 14, 1922.
224In minutes, British boats Several accounts capture the speed and energy with which the British set to the rescue including Hepburn’s report. See also Domvile Diary and Howes.
225Lieutenant Commander C. H. Drage “The 1914–1933 Diaries of Cmdr. C. H. Drage, RN,” IWM, 143–148.
227“One of the saddest cases …” Howes.
228As Hepburn met with the relief Powell, “Ship’s Diary,” Sept. 14, 1922.
CHAPTER 18: MORNING AFTER
229The sun rose Thursday “Smyrna and After, Part III,” 157, 472.
230Agnes Evon, defying Evon, “Seven Days in Smyrna.”
230As it happened, Miss Morley Hepburn, “Smyrna Disaster.”
231“It appeared to me now …” Hepburn, “Smyrna Disaster,” 31.
232The gap between Jennings Jacob to D. Davis. While Jacob provides details on many aspects of the committee’s work, Jennings’s work is passed over in his summary to his superior.
233“We gathered in here …” Jennings to D. Davis.
233Jaquith told Hepburn Hepburn, “Smyrna Disaster,” 32.
234The captain of the Winona Hepburn, “Smyrna Disaster,” 32.
234Jaquith radioed a message Jacquith to STANAV, Sept. 14, 1922. MLB.
234The condition and treatment Jaquith to STANAV, Sept. 14, 1922. MLB.
235Walking on the Quay Vice Consul Maynard Barnes to State Dept, Nov. 22, 1922. NA 767.68/463
235Merrill also went ashore Merrill Diary, Sept. 14, 1922, ASMP.
235Soon the entire carpet-warehouse “Smyrna and After, Part III,” 164.
235At about 9 P.M., Barnes Hepburn, “Smyrna Disaster,” 33; Horton, Blight of Asia, 164. Horton quotes an American YMCA official, who would have been Jacob since he and Jennings were the only two left in the city.
236“Number of refugees …” Hepburn to Bristol, Sept. 15, 1922. MLB.
CHAPTER 19: GARABED HATCHERIAN
237Events in this chapter are drawn from Dr. Hatcherian’s diary.
CHAPTER 20: OIL, WAR, AND THE PROTECTION OF MINORITIES
241The serious pursuit of oil For background on the birth of the Near East oil drilling, I have relied on Yergin. Also, Sourkabi, Rasoul, “Centennary of the First Oil Well in the Mideast,” GeoXpro 5, no. 5, 2008; Multinational Oil Corporations and U.S. Foreign Policy—Together with Individual Views, to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, by the Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations. Report (Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office, 1975); William Stivers, “International Politics and Iraqi Oil, 1918–1928: A Study in Anglo-American Diplomacy,” Business History Review 55, no. 4 (1981): 517; Gerald D. Nash, United States Oil Policy, 1890–1964: Business and Government in Twentieth Century; George Otis Smith, “Where the World Gets Its Oil but Where Will Our Children Get It When American Wells Cease to Flow?” The National Geographic Magazine, February 1920, 181–220; Henry Woodhouse, “American Oil Claims in Turkey,” Current History 15 (1922): 953–959.
244On the day the concession For a masterful study of the topic, see Margaret Macmillan, War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914 (Toronto: Penguin Books Canada, 2014).
245“The Allies had floated …” “Floated to Victory,” New York Times, Nov. 23, 1918.
245Oil had twice Erik Dahl, “Naval Innovation: From Coal to Oil,” Joint Force Quarterly, Winter 2000–2001.
246Secretary Hughes suggested “Multinational Oil Corporations,” Senate Report.
247Idealism was out America’s transformation in the years following World War I is subject of William Leuchtenburg’s classic The Perils of Prosperity, 1914–32 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958). “But prosperity held perils of its own. It invested enormous political and social power in a business class with little tradition of social leadership. It placed economic pre-eminence in the hands of the one country in the world least prepared to guide world trade. It made money the measure of man.”
CHAPTER 21: BRISTOL’S RESISTANCE
248When he was denied Bristol to AMNAVPAR (navy delegation in Paris), June 10, 1920. MLB. The likely recipient of the memorandum was Admiral William Benson, chief of Naval Operations, though the ultimate recipient would be the president and secretary of the navy. “I most earnestly request reconsideration by the President and the approval of the Secretary of the Navy.”
250The hotel was a mas
terpiece “Night at the Museum Hotel,” Daily Mail, Oct. 3, 2010.
250“They had been supported” BWD Sept. 8, 1922
251One of the noncommissioned officers “Louis Crocker, Navy veteran, remembers,” New London Day, Sept. 8, 1981.
251Even Harding Philip Perlmutter, Legacy of Hate: A Short History of Ethnic, Religious, and Racial Prejudice in America (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), 167.
252The memorandum BWD, Sept. 7, 1922.
252Bristol waited three days Bristol to Sec. of State, Sept. 9, 1922. MLB. For a sense of the spin: “Smyrna situation most alarming. Greek troops in panic and pouring into city… . Repeated threats by Greek officers to burn town. Nazili already burned.”
252The next day, September Bristol to Sec. of State. Sept. 10, 1922. MLB. “Smyrna occupied by Mustapha Kemal. Constantinople comparatively tranquil …”
252On the following day, September 11, Dr. Peet was back in Bristol’s office at the embassy with Jeannie Jillson, BWD, Sept. 8, 1922. MLB.
253On approaching Mudania Addoms to Bristol, “Mudania Diary,” Sept. 11, 1922. MLB.
253The British destroyer had taken One of the Greek soldiers was Corporal Stamatis Hadjiyannis. (See note above, “Bride of Ionia.”) He left an unpublished memoir, which is in the possession of his grandson George Poulemenos. It reads, in part: “… we started swimming towards the French warship, which was about one hundred to one hundred and fifty meters away. We had swum more than two and a half kilometers, and our strength began to diminish. Especially mine, as I was not a good swimmer, …
We arrived at the French warship, where we were welcomed. They threw lifejackets with ropes to help us on board, since there was no stairway. I hadn’t the strength to hold the weight of my own body, and the lifejacket was constantly slipping from my hands! The French sailor on the warship, realizing that I was unable to hold on to the lifejacket, hung from the parapet of the warship, perhaps having someone holding him, and grabbed me. Fortunately the sailor had the strength to hold me and get me off the sea, and finally raise me to the warship. When I set my foot on the warship, tears came to my eyes for my misery. I tried not to cry, not wanting to exhibit my frailness.”