The Great Fire

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by Lou Ureneck


  Butman, Carl H. “Secret Lines of Radio Communication.” Radio World 2 (1922): 18.

  Champion, Brian. “Spies (Look) Like Us: The Early Use of Business and Civilian Covers in Covert Operations.” International Journal of Intelligence and Counter Intelligence 21, no. 3 (2008).

  Cohen, S. A. “The Genesis of the British Campaign in Mesopotamia,” 1914, Middle Eastern Studies 12, no. 2 (May 1976).

  Craig, Lee A. “Public Sector Pensions in the United States.” EHnet. http://eh.net/encyclopedia/public-sector-pensions-in-the-united-states/.

  Dadrian, Vahakn N. “The Documentation of the World War I Armenian Massacres in the Proceedings of the Turkish Military Tribunal.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 23, no. 4 (1991): 549–76. doi:10.1017/S0020743800023412.

  Daniel, Robert L. “The Armenian Question and American-Turkish Relations, 1914–1927.” The Mississippi Valley Historical Review 46, no. 2 (September 1, 1959): 252–75.

  Fuhrmann, Malte. “Down and Out on the Quays of Izmir: ‘European’ Musicians, Innkeepers, and Prostitutes in the Ottoman Port-cities.” Mediterranean Historical Review 24, no. 2 (2009): 169–85.

  Gardner, Nicholas, “Charles Townshend’s Advance on Baghdad: The British Offensive in Mesopotamia, September–November 1915,” War in History 20, no. 2 (April 2013).

  Giannuli, Dimitra. “Greeks or ‘Strangers at Home’: The Experiences of Ottoman Greek Refugees during Their Exodus to Greece, 1922–1923.” Journal of Modern Greek Studies 13, no. 2 (1995): 271–87.

  Ginio, Eyal. “Book Review.” Review of Hervé Georgelin, La Fin De Smyrne: Du Cosmopolitisme aux nationalismes, CNRS Histoire (Paris: CNRS Editions, 2005), p. 254.

  Hellman, Geoffrey T. “Soldier of Fortune.” The New Yorker, December 21, 1940, 10–11.

  Heraclides, Alexis. “The Essence of the Greek-Turkish Rivalry: National Narrative and Identity.” The London School of Economics and Political Science. GreeSE Paper No.51, Hellenic Observatory Papers on Greece and Southeast Europe. October 2011. http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/45693/1/GreeSE%20No51.pdf.

  “Heros in Symra.” The Missionary Review 45 (1922): 918.

  Hirt, Joe I. “An American Girl Who Gave Herself for the Armenians.” Luther League Review: 1922–1924, 35–36 (1922): 29.

  Hovannisian, Richard G. “Joseph L. Grabill, Protestant Diplomacy and the Near East: Missionary Influence on American Policy, 1810–1927.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 4, no. 3 (1973): 369–70.

  Howland, Charles P. “Greece and Her Refugees.” Foreign Affairs, July 1926.

  Jensen, Kimberly. “‘Neither Head nor Tail to the Campaign’: Esther Pohl Lovejoy and the Oregon Woman Suffrage Victory of 1912.” Oregon Historical Quarterly 108, no. 3 (October 1, 2007): 350–83.

  Jensen, Peter Kincaid. “The Greco-Turkish War, 1920–1922.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 10, no. 4 (1979): 553–65.

  Kasaba, Resat. Greek and Turkish Nationalism in Formation: Western Anatolia 1919–1922, Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies (RSCAS). European University Institute. Cadmus. November 24, 2003. http://cadmus.eui.eu/handle/1814/1775?show=full.

  Kirli, B. Kolluoglu. “Forgetting the Smyrna Fire.” History Workshop Journal 60, no. 1 (2005): 25–44.

  Koglin, Daniel. “Marginality—A Key Concept in Understanding the Resurgence of Rebetiko in Turkey.” Music and Politics II, no. 1 (2008).

  Levene, Mark. “Why Is the Twentieth Century the Century of Genocide?” Journal of World History 11, no. 2 (2000): 305–36.

  Lippe, John M Vander. “The ‘Other’ Treaty of Lausanne: The American Public and Official Debate on Turkish–American Relations.” Turkish Yearbook of International Relations 23 (1993): 65–78.

  Lowry, Heath. “Turkish History: On Whose Sources Will It Be Based? A Case Study on the Burning of Izmir.” Journal of Ottoman Studies IX (1989): 1–27.

  Marvin, George. “The Greek Military Debacle.” Asia The American Magazine on the Orient (Dec. 1922) 957, 1006.

  Neyzi, Leyla. “Remembering Smyrna/Izmir: Shared History, Shared Trauma.” History and Memory 20, no. 2, Special Issue: Remembering and Forgetting on Europe’s Southern Periphery (October 1, 2008): 106–27.

  Obenzinger, Hilton. “Holy Land Narrative and American Covenant: Levi Parsons, Pliny Fisk and the Palestine Mission.” Religion & Literature 35, no. 2/3 (July 1, 2003): 241–67.

  “Petroleum and Sea Power.” American Oil & Gas History. http://aoghs.org/petroleum-in-war/petroleum-and-sea-power/.

  Prentiss, Mark O. “No Experience Necessary.” The Magazine of Business 37 (1920): 494–96.

  Reed, Cass A. “After the War in Smyrna.” The Missionary Herald at Home and Abroad 115 (May 1919): 186–87.

  Santiago, M. “Culture Clash: Foreign Oil and Indigenous People in Northern Veracruz, Mexico, 1900–1921.” Journal of American History 99, no. 1 (June 22, 2012): 62–71. doi:10.1093/jahist/jas114.

  Smith, George Otis. “Where the World Gets Its Oil but Where Will Our Children Get It When American Wells Cease to Flow?” National Geographic Magazine, February 1920, 181–202.

  “Smyrna.” The Orient 9.10 (1922): 88–94.

  “Smyrna and After, Part I,” Naval Review, Naval Society, London, 1923, Vol. 3, 358.

  “Smyrna and After, Part II,” Naval Review, Naval Society, London, 1923, Vol. 4, 737.

  “Smyrna and After, Part III,” Naval Review, Naval Society, London, 1924, Vol. 1, 157.

  “Smyrna and After, Part IV, V,” Naval Review, Naval Society, London, 1924, Vol. 2, 355.

  “Smyrna and the Dardanelles,” Naval Review, Naval Society, London, 1935, Vol. 3, 467.

  “Smyrna Under the Greco-Turkish Terror.” Literary Digest, New York. Oct. 28, 1922.

  Smyrnelis, Marie-Carmen, ed. Smyrne, La Ville Oubliée? 1830–1930: Mémoires D’un Grand Port Ottoman, Collection Mémoires/Villes (Paris: Éditions Autrement, 2006), p. 252. International Journal of Middle East Studies 41, no. 1 (February 2009): 133–36.

  Sorkhabi, Rasoul, Ph.D. “The Centenary of the First Oil Well in the Middle East.” GEO ExPro Magazine Vol. 5, no. 5 (2008).

  Stivers, William. “International Politics and Iraqi Oil, 1918–1928: A Study in Anglo-American Diplomacy.” Business History Review 55, no. 4 (1981): 517.

  “The ‘Angel of Discord’ at Smyrna.” The Literary Digest, October 7, 1922, 32–34.

  “The Genocide of the Ottoman Greeks: 1914-1923,” Center for the Study of Genocide and Human Rights, Rutgers University (Newark), http://www.ncas.rutgers.edu/center-study-genocide-conflict-resolution-and-human-rights/genocide-ottoman-greeks-1914-1923.

  T.M.J. “With the Greeks in Asia Minor.” Blackwood’s Magazine, September 1922, 292–304.

  “Trade of Smyrna,” Dipolmatic and Consular Reports—Turkey, Report for the Year 1911–1912, London, 1912. From the collection of the Gennadius Library, The American School of Classical Studies, Athens.

  White, Ann. “Counting the Cost of Faith. America’s Early Female Missionaries.” Church History 57, no. 1 (March 1988): 19–30.

  Woodhouse, Henry. “American Oil Claims in Turkey.” Current History 15 (1922): 953–59.

  DISSERTATIONS

  Buzanski, Peter Michsel. “Admiral Mark L. Bristol and Turkish-American Relations, 1919–1922.” Ph.D. diss., University of California, 1960.

  Goodman, Robert Carey. “The Role of the Tobacco Trade in Turkish-American Relations, 1923–29.” Master’s thesis, University of Richmond, 1988. Accessed November 28, 2014. http://scholarship.richmond.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1524&context=masters-theses.

  Kenjar, Kevin. “The Ineffable State of Transcendental Ecstasy: Kefi, Rebetiko and Sufi Mysticism.” Master’s thesis, University of Cincinnati, 2007. Accessed November 28, 2014. http://classics.uc.edu/~campbell/Kenjar/Ecstasy.pdf.

  Lenser, Samuel David. “Between the Great Idea and Kemalism: The YMCA at Izmir in the 1920s.” Master’s thesis, Boise State University, 2010. Accessed November 27, 2014. http://scholarworks.boisestate.edu/cgi/vi
ew content.cgi?article=1135&context=td.

  Shelton, Elizabeth W. “Faith, Freedom, and Flag: The Influence of American Missionaries in Turkey on Foreign Affairs, 1830–1880.” Master’s thesis, Georgetown University Washington, DC, 2011. https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/bitstream/handle/10822/553389/sheltonEliza beth.pdf?sequence=1.

  Solomonidis, Victoria. “Greece in Asia Minor: The Greek Administration of the Vilayet of Aidin, 1919–1922.” Ph.D. diss., University of London, 1984.

  Wadle, Ryan David. “‘The Fourth Dimension of Naval Tactics’: The U.S. Navy and Public Relations, 1919–1939.” Ph.D. diss., Texas A&M University, 2011. http://hdl.handle.net/1969.1/ETD-TAMU-2011-05-9166.

  NEWSPAPERS

  Chicago Tribune

  New York Times

  Portland (Oregon) Tribune

  Times of London

  Other British newspapers as quoted in secondary sources.

  GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS AND WEBSITES

  Naval Investigation Hearings before the Subcommittee of the Committee on Naval Affairs, United States Senate, Sixty-sixth Congress, Second Session … Printed for the Use of the Committee on Naval Affairs. Vol. 2. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1921.

  U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Finance. Hearings Before the Committee on Finance, United States Senate, Sixty-seventh Congress, First Session, on the Proposed Tariff Act of 1921 (H. R. 7456) … 1922: American Valuation. 67th Cong., 1st sess. S. Doc. H. R. 7456. Vol. 7. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1922.

  U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Foreign Relations. Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations. Multinational Corporations and United States Foreign Policy: Hearings, Ninety-third Congress [Ninety-fourth Congress, Second Session], Part 8. 94th Cong., 2d sess. S. Doc. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975.

  U.S. Dept of State Office of the Historian. MILESTONES: 1921–1936.

  INDEX

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  Abdul Halik, 194

  Abdul Hamid II, 11, 41–42, 125, 171

  Adalia, 385

  Adams, Henry, 61

  Adana pogroms, 42

  Addoms, Andrew H., 253–54

  Aegean evacuations of refugees, 383–90

  Afyon Karahisar, 29, 31, 33, 37–38, 70, 76, 147, 264

  Agamemnon, HMS, 126

  Aircraft design, 56

  Aivali, 358, 378, 379–80, 384

  Ajax, HMS, 224

  Akhisar, 45

  Albania, 124, 125

  Albany, USS, 55–56

  Aleppo, 84–85, 172

  Alexander the Great, 25

  Alexandria, 25

  Aliotti, Ernesto, 312–14, 340, 345–46

  Allenby, Edmund, 172

  Alliance One, 276n

  Amalion Orphanage, 392

  Amalthea (newspaper), 78

  American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM), 175

  American Committee for Syrian and Armenian Relief, 129

  American Expeditionary Force, 133

  American Federation of Churches of Christ, 326

  American Federation of Labor, 130

  American Friends of Turkey, 391

  American Girls’ School, 200–201

  American guards at, 118, 140, 200

  evacuation of, 200–204, 206, 211–13, 212n

  refugees and violence, 147, 158, 178, 186, 194, 200–201

  American International College, 27, 71, 72–73, 82, 199–200

  American guards at, 118, 140, 154–55, 205

  orphan refugees at, 89, 117, 284–85

  refugees and violence, 87, 151, 162–63, 183–85

  American Relief Administration (ARA), 68, 80, 131, 132, 280–82, 283, 294, 310–11, 331

  Americans in Smyrna

  business interests, 24–25, 140–42, 248–50, 263–64, 275–77; Bristol and bank closing, 50–51, 57; Bristol’s policy of protecting, 52, 57–58, 101, 130–31, 174–75, 178–79; community meetings, 79, 80–81, 87

  evacuation of, 2–6, 193–95, 199–200, 205, 212–13, 215

  protection of, 52, 68–69, 81, 86, 87–88, 90, 98–100, 118, 139–40, 141, 147, 154–55, 163, 164, 186, 200, 203, 205

  relief efforts of. See specific persons and organizations

  American Theater (Smyrna Theater), 138, 142, 151–52, 192

  American guards at, 118, 120, 139, 158

  evacuations at, 198–99, 204–5

  Great Fire and, 214, 222

  refugees at, 167, 198–99

  relief committee at, 89–90, 155–56

  American tobacco companies, 24, 80–81, 263–64, 275–77, 317–18

  American Tobacco Company, 156–57, 206–7, 276–77, 315

  American Women’s Hospital Association, 352, 353, 385

  Anatolia, 11–12, 15–16, 50, 84, 127

  Anatolia College, 175–76

  Anglo-Ionian Bank, 50–51

  Anglo-Persian Oil Co., 243, 244

  Ankara government, 68, 172, 194, 285

  Antioch, SS, 79, 104

  Anti-Saloon League, 327

  Arakelian, Aram, 240

  Arakelian, Levon, 169

  Araksi (maid), 168–70, 355

  Archbell, Jehu, 276–77, 317, 381

  Argyropoulos, Ippokratis, 214

  Argyropulos, Panos, 340, 345–46, 376, 377

  Arlington National Cemetery, 392

  Arlotta, Madame, 256

  Armenia, and Sevres Treaty, 15, 16

  Armenian Club, 206

  Armenian Genocide

  death marches, 9–10, 15–16, 63–64, 84–85, 294–97, 438n

  overview, 9–10, 15–16

  use of term “genocide,” 9, 393–94

  Armenian orphans in Smyrna, 202–3, 230–31, 272, 298

  Armenian Quarter, 25, 76, 150–51, 154, 159, 165, 168, 180, 186

  Great Fire, 194, 202, 206–11

  Jennings in Turkish mob, 195–96

  Armenian refugees along Sea of Marmara, 159–60

  Armenian refugees in Smyrna, 3–4, 70–71, 72, 75–79, 87, 90–91, 104–5, 107–8, 119–20, 128, 130–35, 144, 174–75

  days of despair, 290–98

  evacuation of. See Refugee evacuations of Smyrna

  food shortages, 109–11, 113–14, 157–58, 180–81, 281–82

  Noureddin and, 174–77

  relief efforts, 68, 82, 88, 110–15, 119, 128–30, 134, 138–43, 156–59, 165–66, 174, 177, 178, 180, 202–4, 215, 230–34, 280, 281, 291. See also specific persons and relief organizations

  Theodora’s story, 92–94, 286–89, 381

  Turkish violence against, 150–51, 155–56, 159, 160–61, 165–66, 174, 177–79, 182–88, 191–92, 211–12, 234–35, 294

  Asia Minor Defense League, 43, 44, 78, 161

  Asian Minor, refugee situation in, 383–90

  Atatürk. See Kemal, Mustapha

  Attatürk (Kinross), 301n

  Austria-Hungary, 11, 12, 124, 244, 245

  Aydin Railroad, 36, 70, 108, 196, 360

  Bailey, Lewis, 361

  Bakas, Governor, 340, 376

  Bakeries in Smyrna, 89, 110–11, 113–14, 139–40, 158, 180, 281

  Balchova refugee camp, 157, 282–83, 282n, 315

  Balfour Declaration, 15

  Balkan Wars, 82–84, 403n

  Baltimore Sun, 138n, 327

  Bandits, 162, 163, 198, 243, 276, 282

  Barnes, Maynard, 77, 107, 174, 284, 317, 359

  evacuation preparations, 193–94, 214–15

  Great Fire and, 218, 235–36

  relief efforts, 183, 227, 234, 234n, 317, 362

  Barneveld Methodist Church, 113

  Barton, James, 326

  Battle at Sakaria, 33–34

  Battle of Jutland, 222–25

  Bavarian, SS, 79

  Beaverbrook, Max Aitken, Lord, 250

/>   Bell, Edward, 333–34

  Bello, Toney, 140

  Benson, William S., 53, 432–33n

  Bernhardt, Sarah, 261

  Birge, Anna, 199–200, 200n

  Birge, J. Kingsley, 72, 198, 316

  Bismarck Tribune, 326

  Black, Van Clear, 138n

  Blackley, Francis, 88

  Black Sea ports, refugee evacuation of, 385–87

  Bliss, Robert Woods, 88

  Bolshevik Revolution, 49

  Bosnia-Herzegovina, 124

  Bosporus, 49–50

  Boston Cafe, 77

  Boston Red Sox, 61

  Boudjah, 94, 117, 164, 186, 284

  Bouillon, Henry Franklin, 379

  Bournabat, 25, 118, 119, 140, 148–49, 163–64, 186, 218, 316

  Bozok, Salih, 162

  BP (British Petroleum), 243

  Bristol, Helen, 52–53, 54–55, 58, 95–96, 392

  Bristol, Mark L.

  Albany incident, 55–56

  American business interests and, 50–51, 52, 57–58, 63, 68, 101, 130–31, 140–42, 174–75, 178–79, 248–50, 275; oil policy, 246, 247, 248, 360

  American relief community and, 128–29, 130, 132, 134–35, 152, 174–75, 234, 235

  anti-Greek and Armenian sentiments of, 96–97, 99, 130, 131, 133, 265, 410–11n; claims of Greek atrocities, 133–34, 148, 150, 181–82, 250–51

  authority of, 52–54

  background of, 52–53, 55–57, 96–97, 248–49

  distrust of British, 50–51, 152, 246, 249, 250, 251

  Hepburn and, 98, 135, 137–42, 149–50, 152, 153, 161, 165, 174, 178–79, 182–83, 219, 220, 231, 236, 269, 272, 317, 332–33

  as high commissioner, 48–59, 95–96, 98–102, 247, 249–50

  Horton and, 39, 54, 62–63, 67–69, 80, 86, 98, 131, 181–83, 251; request for naval protection, 68–69, 81, 86, 87–88, 90, 98–100

  Houston and, 219–20

  intelligence gathering, 53–54, 98–99; by Merrill, 98–99, 104, 108, 115–16, 120, 182–83, 271–72

  Jennings and, 330, 343, 345, 345n, 391; learns of mission, 316–17, 369–74

  later life of, 392

  onboard Scorpion, 48, 58, 95, 98, 100, 250, 255, 329, 331

  Powell and, 263, 285, 293, 298, 316–17, 330, 340, 360, 369–70, 379, 389

  pro-Turkish sentiments of, 62–63, 67–68, 129, 330

  public relations of, 100–101, 133–34, 135, 254–55

  response to Smyrna crisis, 67–69, 87–88, 130–35, 176–77, 249–56, 266, 267, 272, 293, 294, 296n, 386, 388–89; pressure to intervene, 325, 327–37

 

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