interesting character. Is he really the cleverest animal? Are his actions always laudable? There is plenty of scope for discussion here.
Because this is an oral tradition, passed on from one generation to another in Xitswa, Gitonga, Changana, or Cicopi, no single author can be credited with each tale. Moreover, the stories are not fixed in form. Each storyteller will express the gist of the story in their own way, so for example the second story in this collection, "The Monkey and the Rabbit," repeats what the grandmother tells in "Karingana." Later, "The Race" and "The Monkey and the Turtle" share the theme of trickery in a race. Or two themes can be chained together into one story; for example the hand-washing theme of "The End of a Friendship" also appears in the second of the race stories. I think it is because of this fluid and living quality of oral literature that elements of modern life can appear in what is otherwise a typical Rabbit and Monkey story like "The Bank."
Some of the stories have a strong resemblance to folk tales that we know from other traditions, such as Aesop's fables. "The Rabbits and the Tiger" sounds like an African form of the European "Three Little Pigs," and the story which I have named "The Tar-Baby" also appears in the American south. Whether this is a matter of universal themes, or cultural diffusion through colonialism and the slave trade, I simply do not know.
This book is just a small piece in the immense task of preserving the cultural heritage of Mozambique and other Bantu-speaking countries. It will surely be of value not just to the Xitswa, Gitonga, Changana, and Cicopi peoples, but to the rest of us as well.
In the Classroom
Having first learned Portuguese, Mozambican students study English from grade 7 to grade 12, but they are never too old to enjoy traditional stories from their childhood! As mentioned above, these stories are greeted with enthusiasm and hilarity even by adult students and secondary school teachers. Perhaps there is the joy of recognition, and also a relief to find that school and education do not have to mean rejecting the culture of home.
Literacy and written materials are of course emphasized in school, yet here is a way to bring the strong tradition of narrating and listening, into the classroom. Many of the stories are short, and written at a basic level of English, which makes them more accessible to learners. I know that teachers will often not have enough printed copies for all their students, or may only be able to make one copy, so here are some suggestions for integrating reading, listening, speaking, and even writing, into classroom practice. The teacher will of course use their discretion as to whether discussion takes place in English, in Portuguese, or in the local first language. Enjoyment, comprehension, and self-expression are the goals.
1. The teacher reads the story aloud, and then poses a series of questions, first factual and then of opinion, for students to discuss in groups.
2. Good students read the story aloud to small groups, followed by discussion in the group.
3. The teacher reads part of the story aloud, and asks the students if they recognize it, and how it continues.
4. This leads naturally into retelling by individual students, either to small groups or to the whole class.
5. It is great fun to have one story told several times over, in different languages. You will find that every class contains some wonderful storytellers, and you will see some lively interactive participation.
6. Every story can be followed by discussion of "the moral of the story," and there will be many different interpretations. This is perfectly acceptable, and has educational value in its own right.
7. Dictate a few sentences from a story, perhaps summarizing or simplifying a bit. Then ask the class to read them back to you en masse.
8. Even with only pencil and paper, some students could try illustrating the stories. Texts with pictures on classroom walls are a great stimulus to reading, and chewing gum is a good substitute for Bluetack!
9. It will take very little prompting for students to begin to suggest more stories that they know from home, and at higher levels they can attempt to write them down in simple English, working in groups and helping each other. With a little coaching they will be able to read them out to others.
10. An ambitious goal would be for a class to put together its own little book of stories, and keep them as a resource for classes coming up below them.
List of Contributors
Aniseto António Banze
Damas Calisto Calege
Sabir Ibraimo Abdul Carimo
Ergílio Daniel Chemane
Helder Justino Chiembele
Ángelo Alberto Cossa
Isva Cigna Diogo
Graça Rafael Daniel Dzucule
Milton Ernestina da Glória
Stepson Fabião Mabuto
Nilsa André Mapolissa
Venáncio Paulo Massango
Jorge Fernando Muchave
Edite Filósia Naife
Jaime Francisco Nhaguilunguana
Nelson Estevão Nhamua
Paulino Samuel Nhatave
Ángela Dionísia Parruque
Jemuce Pinheiro
Dércio Vasco Roque
Dércio Salomão Armando Salomão.
João Alexandre Sarmento
Carlos Sebastião Sevene.
Joana Rafael Uaciquete
Edio Eugenio Xavier
Jackson Caetano Jossefa Zavala
Old Stories Page 5