by C. Dier
Published by The History Press
Charleston, SC
www.historypress.net
Copyright © 2017 by C. Dier
All rights reserved
First published 2017
e-book edition 2017
ISBN 978.1.43966.302.8
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017945028
print edition ISBN 978.1.62585.855.9
Notice: The information in this book is true and complete to the best of our knowledge. It is offered without guarantee on the part of the author or The History Press. The author and The History Press disclaim all liability in connection with the use of this book.
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Dedicated to
Lynne and Keith Dier, my parents, and
Conchetta Barranco Hausse, my late grandmother.
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements
Introduction
1. Colonization
2. Antebellum
3. Escalation
4. Culmination
5. Devastation
6. Ramification
7. Deconstruction
8. Recollection
Notes
About the Author
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To help highlight the history prior to the massacre, the massacre itself and how it shaped St. Bernard Parish, I am indebted to others for their assistance. William deMarigny Hyland, the current St. Bernard Parish historian, assisted with painting the events and the intricate history of the parish prior to 1868 in an accurate light. Jerry Estopinal, a prominent member of the Los Isleños Heritage and Cultural Society, also provided grave insight in this excursion. I would like to thank countless friends and family who assisted me throughout the process. Most importantly, I would like to extend an appreciation of gratitude to my mother, Lynne Dier, who instilled in me a burning passion for local history and advised me throughout this arduous process. She taught history in St. Bernard Parish for forty years before her retirement. I remain her student.
INTRODUCTION
On a cool October morning in 1868, Louis Wilson, a recently emancipated freedman, put on his finest clothes, hopped on his employer’s horse and headed to the St. Bernard Parish Courthouse. He was a witness in an ongoing case. Wilson heard word “from town that the white people were going to come out and kill all the colored people” who were Republicans or “believed in the Union.” Racial tensions were high over the upcoming presidential election. He had witnessed some freedmen being shot the night prior but assumed the worst was over.1
On his return from the courthouse, a group of white men led by Warren Check coerced Louis to dismount his horse, struck him in the jaw with a gun and tossed him into a wagon with other captive freedmen and Dr. Moses Lindley Lee, a wealthy white Republican from New York. The capturers transported the victims to Florey’s, a local coffeehouse temporarily converted into a makeshift prison. They spoke of murdering Dr. Lee, but Wilson convinced them in Spanish and French that he was only there to make peace, not threaten others. Although Wilson was illiterate, he spoke English, French and Spanish, a feat that saved Dr. Lee’s life.
The bandits delayed murdering Dr. Lee, but Wilson and other freedmen were not as fortunate. A few men dragged the freedmen onto the side of the road and, with little hesitation, shot them. Wilson survived, but the others died instantly. It was a brutal execution. Wilson, with a bullet lodged in his leg, managed to crawl into the nearby brush. One of the executioners approached him and shot him in the shoulder. The perpetrators left Wilson for dead. He hid in the cane fields for three days until he felt safe to return home.
We do not know much about Wilson, but we do know these details from his testimony and concurring testimonies provided within a month of the ordeal. After giving testimony of his ordeal, he remarked, “This is such a cold bad place I am afraid I will die here. I want to be taken to a hospital.”2
His story and similar others surrounding the course of events in St. Bernard Parish in 1868 have faded from memory. At the time of government investigations, the ordeal was frequently dubbed the “St. Bernard Riot,” but there is no evidence of riot, only evidence of a massacre systemically orchestrated against the freedpeople of St. Bernard Parish. A riot presumes spontaneity or that similarly matched sides chaotically exchanged blows. Almost all freedpeople killed were unarmed. Considering this was a calculated event with all the characteristics of a massacre, it is labeled as a massacre in this book as opposed to a riot.
At least one investigation does label the events as a massacre. The Louisiana General Assembly (a common name for the Louisiana state legislature, which derives its origins from the French Assemblée générale) does not acknowledge the killings as riotous. According to the report, “The charge of ‘negro riots’ was hypocritical; it was intended solely to arouse the passions of the base and turbulent, so as to make them ready instruments of designing political leaders.”3
I ORIGINALLY FOUND this story combing through the history of St. Bernard Parish as I taught eighth grade Louisiana history at St. Bernard Middle School, located in the region where the massacre occurred. St. Bernard Parish is directly adjacent to New Orleans on the same side of the river, the east bank. I searched local stories to help my students relate to the content and ignite interest. I was immediately captivated once I stumbled across this tragic and fascinating ordeal. I grew up in St. Bernard Parish, where these events occurred, and lived here almost my entire life. More importantly, I teach the descendants of many people mentioned in this work. I continue to have classes where students carry the last names of the victims and perpetrators.
In order to help comprehend the events leading up to the massacre, it is imperative to understand the multifaceted history of St. Bernard Parish prior to 1868. Establishing historic context is vital to more accurately comprehend an event or society. Much of the history regarding these regions is focused on wealthy elites, typically plantation owners, bureaucrats or aristocrats who dictated important policy and economic decisions. Prior to the massacre, the two largest ethnic groups of St. Bernard were the Isleños, descendants of the Canary Islands, and Africans and their descendants, the majority of whom were locked in bondage until the Civil War. These two impoverished groups were at the forefront of the calamity.
An 1895 map showing St. Bernard Parish in relation to New Orleans, Lake Pontchartrain, Lake Borgne and the Mississippi River. Courtesy of the Historic New Orleans Collection.
To capture the story and the course of events before and after, I divided the chapters into chronological order. The first chapter, “Colonization,” details the earliest groups who settled in the region and the early arrivals of Africans. It encompasses the arrival of the Isleños under Spanish rule. It also details the significant impact of the Louisiana Purchase and the Battle of New Orleans on the inhabitants of St. Bernard Parish. “Antebellum” is the title of the second chapter. The first section of the chapter covers St. Bernard Parish during the height of slavery and its role as the United States mobilized for war. The second section covers the Union invasion, subsequent occupation and its impact on the people of St. Bernard Parish, notably the emancipation of thousands of enslaved people, all of which had a profound impact on the buildup of the massacre itself.
The next four chapters focus specifically on the convoluted events surrounding the massacre. Chapter seven, “Deconstruction,” discusses the ending of the massacre, its immediate impact on the region and its role in crippling Reconstruction efforts.
Furthermore, it focuses on those who came to power after the death of Reconstruction and its effect on St. Bernard Parish. It highlights episodes of lynching and other atrocities employed to intimidate African Americans and preserve white dominance. Lastly, chapter eight, “Recollection,” discusses St. Bernard Parish as it transitioned into the twentieth century and set the stage to morph into its current character as the events of 1868 faded from collective memory.
This saga is hardly mentioned throughout history. Perhaps the most documented account of this story is from a report, “The St. Bernard Riot, 1868,” written by First Lieutenant Jesse Matlock Lee. Lieutenant Lee was born in Indiana, joined the Union army at the outbreak of the Civil War and was later tasked to investigate riots and disturbances throughout Louisiana during Reconstruction. At the age of twenty-six, he visited St. Bernard Parish for a day, interviewed at least eleven victims and hastily wrote a report to his superiors. Beyond Lieutenant Lee’s report, only a handful of books concerning Reconstruction violence in Louisiana give it slight attention. There are no dissertations or articles in historical journals. There are no historical markers to remember it or to memorialize the black victims. Much, if not all, of the story has been lost through oral tradition. Nonetheless, the stories of Louis Wilson and others who faced such brutality need to be told.
Chapter 1
COLONIZATION
They asked him who his comrades were;
Poor St. Malo said not a word!
The judge his sentence read to him,
And then they raised the gallows-tree.
They drew the horse—the cart moved off—
And left St. Malo hanging there.
The sun was up an hour high
When on the Levee he was hung;
They left his body swinging there,
For carrion crows to feed upon.
—“The Dirge of San Malo” 4
It was a scorching summer day in 1784 as New Orleanians of various social classes poured into Plaza de Armas (today Jackson Square) in the French Quarter to see what was at that time considered a grand spectacle: the lynching of three black men for murdering whites. No clergy administrated their final confessions, an atypical act for even the harshest of criminals; instead, they opted to watch from their balcony overlooking the plaza. The main fugitive, Juan San Malo, unsuccessfully attempted to exonerate his two companions from the gallows. The floor of the gallows soon gave way, and three bodies dangled.5
In the late eighteenth century in Spanish Louisiana, Juan San Malo and his group of maroons roamed the marshes surrounding New Orleans. The word “maroon” derives from the Spanish word cimarrón, which roughly translates to “fugitive” or “runaway.” San Malo was one of Louisiana’s fiercest and most notable maroons. Little is known about his upbringing. Prior to mutinying, he belonged to Karl Friedrich D’Arensbourg, a Swiss-born colonial official with a plantation along the German Coast, a region along the Mississippi River above New Orleans. After Malo’s escape, he utilized his carpentry skills to produce furniture to accumulate weapons and gunpowder. His alarming success gained him loyal supporters throughout the maroon community. He established his main camp in Bas du Fleuve, located in modern-day St. Bernard Parish along the banks of Lake Borgne. Bas du Fleuve and surrounding regions were notorious for marronage. The majority of maroons from the area hailed from St. Bernard Parish, considering its geographical features and proximity to New Orleans paved the way for large plantations.6
The first ships carrying enslaved Africans arrived in New Orleans in 1719, and by as early as 1723, maps depict large plantations fronting the Mississippi River within the modern-day borders of St. Bernard Parish. The majority of the earliest slave ships that arrived in French Louisiana were from Senegambia, modern-day Senegal and Gambia. The Senegambians were from a sophisticated culture skilled at ironworking, farming and various other tasks. They successfully cultivated indigo, which grew wild in both Senegal and Louisiana. It became a lucrative cash crop in early Louisiana. Some Africans fled from brutal slave conditions to the swampy environment surrounding the plantations that provided an elusive escape. Bas du Fleuve and similar places provided San Malo and other maroons a plentiful source of runaways.7
Maroons living in Bas du Fleuve started out as raiders plundering to survive. However, their modus operandi shifted as they became more organized under San Malo’s leadership. According to Gwendolyn Midlo Hall in Africans in Colonial Louisiana: The Development of Afro-Creole Culture in the Eighteenth Century:
Although some of the maroons continued to raid plantations and kill cattle, there was a move toward production and trade for economic survival. They cultivated corn, squash, and rice and gathered and ground herbs for food. They made baskets, sifters, and other articles woven from willow and reeds. They carved indigo vats and troughs from cypress wood. And…they gathered berries, dwarf palmetto roots, and sassafras, trapped birds, hunted and fished, and went to New Orleans to trade and to gamble. Although the maroons were denounced as brigands and murderers, their violence was almost entirely defensive. The danger they posed to the colony was more profound. They surrounded the plantations. Slaves remaining with their masters were in constant contact with them.8
A 1723 map of the New Orleans area depicting property owners along the Mississippi River. Courtesy of Newberry Library, Chicago.
A 1707 French map depicting Senegambia along coastal West Africa. Courtesy of the Library of Congress.
San Malo’s name possibly derives from the slave-trading port of Saint Malo in northwestern France, but it is uncertain. The named sounded like “Saint Evil” in Spanish. Stories of him reverberated throughout Spanish Louisiana and terrified the Creole elite and wealthy slave owners. (The term “Creole” refers to people descended from early colonial settlers, usually of French, Spanish and/or African origins.) San Malo was known for his harsh tactics at remaining a free person. According to folklore, he murdered his wife for desiring to return to her owner because she feared being caught. Although San Malo and his group were typically defensive, they sometimes attacked people transporting slaves to emancipate others and potentially enlarge their coalition. According to another legend, he stabbed a tree near his encampment and claimed, “Malheur au blanc qui passera ces borners” [“Woe to the white who would pass this boundary”]. He also kept dangerous company. One of his loyal lieutenants was nicknamed “Knight of the Axe” because of his choice of weapon used to brutally split open the head of an American captor who made the unfortunate mistake of venturing his way.9
The Spanish colonial government repeatedly ordered unsuccessful raids to capture the fugitive maroon San Malo. He and his maroons, usually comprising over one hundred armed men, would rather die than succumb to the brutality of slavery. The Spanish elite considered the maroon a threat that needed to be immediately eradicated. In 1794, they mounted a surprise invasion consisting of regular troops, militiamen, hunters and others who desired San Malo dead. Guided by a tip from San Malo’s captured companions, they plunged into the marshes with pirogues, flat-bottomed boats commonly used in shallow waters, full of heavily armed men. They attacked the camp and captured San Malo with sixteen other men.10
An injured San Malo pleaded to be finished off, but his captors wanted glory for subduing the evasive maroon. According to Gilbert C. Din in Spaniards, Planters, and Slaves, “Word of San Malo’s apprehension spread quickly, and many inhabitants lined the Mississippi to cheer the boats as they passed. About June 10, onlookers at New Orleans crowded the levee and the houses facing the river to see the pirogues bringing the captives.”
San Malo was paraded around New Orleans as citizens jeered and hurled insults. During his trial, he confessed to the murder of whites. After a guilty verdict, San Malo was lynched in Plaza de Armas. Other maroons faced endless flogging, brandings of the letter “M” for maroon, shackling and other forms of torture. Malo’s new wife, Cecilia, was sentenced to execution but was spared because she was pregnant.11
San
Malo’s ability to stand up to brute oppression was recognized among the local slave community. He continued to live as a legend throughout the region for well over a century following his death. His gallantry was the subject of a popular Creole song in St. Bernard Parish, “The Dirge of San Malo,” and is documented in George Washington Cable’s 1886 work, Creole Slave Songs. According to Lawrence Powell in The Accidental City, the song “portrayed the maroon chieftain as biting his tongue when asked to implicate his comrades, and which could still be heard in St. Bernard Parish long after Emancipation, was not just a song of lament but a testament to the slaves’ defiance.”12
An 1877 map of the New Orleans area specifying plantations along the Mississippi River. St. Bernard Parish is southeast of New Orleans. Courtesy of the Historic New Orleans Collection.
An illustration in Harper’s Weekly depicting various dwellings in Saint Malo, 1883. Courtesy of the Library of Congress.
His legacy helped inspire the failed German Coast Uprising along the Mississippi River in 1811, the largest slave insurrection in United States history. San Malo did more than inspire hope for a life of freedom for the enslaved. Sometime between the 1820s and 1830s, a Spanish ship leaving the Spanish East Indies, present-day Philippines, docked at New Orleans. A group of Filipinos seized the opportunity to abandon ship. These Filipinos, skilled and adept at life on the water, sought refuge on the shores of Lake Borgne, in modern-day St. Bernard Parish, away from the hustle and bustle of one of the largest ports in the Americas. They named their newfound settlement Saint Malo after hearing stories of the legend. It was the first Filipino settlement in the United States. Saint Malo existed in almost complete isolation as a self-sufficient village for well over a century until a hurricane in 1915 obliterated the community.13