105. US House, Appropriations for 1954, 309–10.
106. “Revised Draft of Interim Report . . .,” November 28, 1955.
107. Alfred R. Lindesmith, “Dope: Congress Encourages the Traffic,” The Nation 184 (March 16, 1957): 228–31.
108. US House, Appropriations for 1959, 104.
109. Mc Williams, Protectors, 115. There had been a general increase in the number of enforcement personnel assigned to narcotics squads at the state and municipal level as well. The FBN directed a special training program for local narcotics enforcement, which was part of a larger national effort to extend enforcement and coordinate policing at all levels, and the Interdepartmental Committee on Narcotics outlined a plan for the “coordination of enforcement activities in this field, including the exchange of reports and information with the Bureau of Narcotics and enforcement agencies of other States and municipalities.” See “Revised Draft of Interim Report . . .,” November 28, 1955.
110. Gene Sherman, “Police Meet Toughest Problem in Narcotics Traffic,” Los Angeles Times, July 19, 1959, 1, 23.
111. “No ‘Due Process’ in ‘Secret Indictments’,” Los Angeles Tribune, October 2, 1958, 8, 10.
112. Mina Yang, “A Thin Blue Line Down Central Avenue: The LAPD and the Demise of a Musical Hub,” Black Music Research Journal 22, no. 2 (Autumn 2002): 232.
113. Lindesmith, “Dope,” 229; Alfred R. Lindesmith, “Our Immoral Drug Laws,” The Nation 186, June 22, 1958, 558.
114. US House, Appropriations for 1958, 363–64.
115. Nathan B. Eddy and Harris Isbell, MD, “Addiction Liability and Narcotics Control,” Public Health Reports 74, no. 9 (September 1959): 756–57 [emphasis added].
116. Eddy and Isbell, “Addiction Liability,” 757, 759, 762.
117. See, for example, Charles O. Jackson, “The Amphetamine Democracy: Medicinal Abuse in the Popular Culture,” South Atlantic Quarterly 74, no. 3 (1975): 308–23. For an interesting discussion of a drug panic attached to white middle-class women’s consumption of valium in the late 1960s and early 1970s that unlike other drug panics did not result in punitive legal measures, see David L. Herzberg, “The Pill You Love Can Turn on You”: Feminism, Tranquilizers, and the Valium Panic of the 1970s,” American Quarterly 58, no. 1 (March 2006): 79–103.
118. US Senate, International Opium Protocol, 5.
119. US House, Committee on Appropriations, Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, Treasury-Post Office Departments Appropriations for 1961, 86th Cong., 2d sess., 7, 25–29 January, 2–4 February, 1960, 164.
120. Kuh, “Prosecutor’s Thoughts,” 324–25.
121. “Legalized Addiction,” Newsweek 49, January 7, 1957, 66; “Drug Addiction,” Science 122, July 8, 1955, 67–68.
122. “Narcotic Dilemma,” Time 66, October 3, 1955, 63–64.
123. “Letters,” The Nation 182, June 2, 1956, inside cover.
124. These debates hark back to the aftermath of World War I, where potential socialist threats and growing hostility to behavior deemed deviant or subversive spilled over into disputes over whether maintaining addicts on drugs was a legitimate medical procedure, ultimately resolved in the negative by Supreme Court decisions in 1919 that led to the closing down of maintenance clinics, not to be opened again until the 1970s. H. Wayne Morgan, Drugs in America: A Social History, 1800-1980 (New York: Syracuse University Press, 1981), 110–17; Musto, American Disease, 132–33.
125. Dan Wakefield, “Dope on the Downbeat,” The Nation 185 (August 31, 1957): 92–93.
126. “Large Number of Dope Addicts Among Doctors,” Science News Letter, March 23, 1957, 185. Similar sentiments are expressed toward “professional and business men who have families and business and social responsibilities” in Anslinger, Traffic in Narcotics, 210.
127. US House, Appropriations for 1958, 357.
128. US House, Appropriations for 1958, 367–68.
129. Winick, Charles, “Narcotics Addiction and Its Treatment,” Law and Contemporary Problems 22, no. 1, Narcotics (Winter 1957): 15.
130. Harry Allen Feldman, “Jazz: A Place in Music Education?” Music Educators Journal 50, no. 6 (June–July 1964): 60.
131. Wakefield, “Dope on the Downbeat,” 92–93.
132. Alan P. Merriam and Raymond W. Mack, “The Jazz Community,” Social Forces 38 (1959–1960): 213–16.
133. Quoted in Yang, “Thin Blue Line,” 218, 227.
134. Charles Mingus, Beneath the Underdog, 250, quoted in Robert K. McMichael, “‘We Insist-Freedom Now!’: Black Moral Authority, Jazz, and the Changeable Shape of Whiteness,” American Music 16, no. 4 (Winter 1998): 392.
135. Reflecting a different kind of response, in 1947 the American Federation of Musicians, a division of the American Federation of Labor, “adopted a resolution banning all members who are convicted of carrying or using narcotic drugs.” This was likely an effort to target black musicians perhaps in response to the recent integration of the union. “Musicians’ Union to Ban Narcotic Addicts; Petrillo to Be Reelected for Eighth Term,” New York Times, June 13, 1947.
136. Wakefield, “Dope on the Downbeat,” 92–93; George E. Pitts, “Narcotics Discussion Is Key Phase of Festival,” Pittsburgh Courier, July 20, 1957, 19.
137. Wakefield, “Dope on the Downbeat,” 92–93; “Jazz Group Plans Clinic Here,” New York Times, September 6, 1957, 12.
138. Charles Winick, “The Use of Drugs by Jazz Musicians,” Social Problems 7, no. 3 (Winter 1959–1960): 241, 251.
139. Charles Winick, “High the Moon: Jazz and Drugs,” Antioch Review 21, 1 (Spring 1961): 53.
140. Winick, “Use of Drugs,” 250.
141. Winick, “Narcotics Addiction,” 19.
142. “Music, Newport Blues,” Time, July 18, 1960.
143. Jesse H. Walker, “Theatricals,” New York Amsterdam News, July 2, 1960, 17; John S., “2 Jazz Festivals Open in Newport,” New York Times, July 1, 1960, 13; Stanley Robertson, “New Abbey Lincoln Album Hits Pay Dirt,” Los Angeles Sentinel, August 17, 1961, C3.
144. Nat Hentoff, “Bringing Dignity to Jazz,” in his The Jazz Life (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 1975), 105–12.
145. “Music, Newport Blues,” Time, July 18, 1960; Thomasina Norford, “Rousing Jazz Revival at Newport,” New York Amsterdam News, July 14, 1962, 16.
146. Langston Hughes, “Week By Week (2),” Chicago Defender, July 23, 1960, 10.
147. Hentoff, “Bringing Dignity,” 110, 100.
148. Penny Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World: Jazz Ambassadors Play the Cold War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), 12.
149. Von Eschen, Satchmo, 21, 188.
150. Gene Lees, “Jazz Battles Communism,” Music Journal (November–December 1962): 70–74, on 73.
151. Charles Siragusa, The Trail of the Poppy: Behind the Mask of the Mafia (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1966), 49.
152. On US-Cuban relations see Louis A. Pérez, Cuba and the United States: Ties of Singular Intimacy, 3rd ed. (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2003); Lars Shoultz, That Infernal Little Cuban Republic (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009).
153. US House, Committee on Appropriations, Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, Treasury-Post Office Departments Appropriations for 1960, 86th Cong., 1st sess., 26–30 January, 2–5, 10 February 1959, 128.
154. Siragusa, Trail of the Poppy, 56.
155. US House, Appropriations for 1961, 164.
156. Siragusa, Trail of the Poppy, 56.
157. “Peru: The White Goddess,” Time, April 11, 1949, 44.
158. US House, Appropriations for 1961,164.
159. Siragusa to Secretary of State, Telegram, March 26, 1960; File 341.9; Box 551; State Department; 59–250–3–12–2; NACP.
160. Including officials from Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Venezuela, Mexico, Colombia, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua. Charles Siragusa, Report of the United States Delegation to the Second Inter-Ame
rican Meeting on the Illicit Traffic in Cocaine and Coca Leaves,” January 4, 1962; Box 54, 2nd Inter-American Conference, Brazil, 1961; 174–74–4; NACP: 10.
161. Siragusa, Report . . . to the Second Inter-American Meeting, 15.
162. Charles Siragusa to Dr. Joao Amoroso Netto, Bureau de Policia Internacional, December 21, 1959; File 0345, 1st Inter-American Conference, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1960; Box 54; 174–4–4; NACP.
163. G.E. Yates to Anslinger, December 7, 1959; File 1230–1, United Nations 15th Session Folder #1; Box 123; 170–74–5; NACP.
164. Anslinger to Elwyn F. Chase, March 9, 1960; File 0345, 1st Inter-American Conference, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1960; Box 54; 174–4–4; NACP.
165. Charles Siragusa, Report of the United States Delegation to the First Inter-American Meeting on the Illicit Traffic in Cocaine and Coca Leaves,” April 14, 1960; Doc. 12/1/3; File 0345, 1st Inter-American Conference, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1960; Box 54; 174–4–4; NACP.
166. Leland L. Johnson, “U.S. Business Interests in Cuba and the Rise of Castro,” World Politics 17, no. 3 (April 1965): 440–59; Shoultz, Infernal Little Cuban Republic, 110, 117–19; Pérez, Cuba and the United States, 240–43.
167. See Alejandro De La Fuente, A Nation For All: Race, Inequality and Politics in Cuba, 1900–2000 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000).
168. Jones, Leroi (Amiri Baraka), “Cuba Libre,” in Home: Social Essays, ed. Leroi Jones (New York: William Morrow, 1966), 53.
169. Timothy B. Tyson, Radio Free Dixie: Robert F. Williams and the Roots of Black Power (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 233. See also Brenda Gayle Plummer, “Castro in Harlem: A Cold War Watershed,” in Rethinking the Cold War: Essays on Its Dynamics, Meaning, and Morality, ed. Allen Hunter (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1997), and Cynthia Young, Soul Power: Cultural Radicalism and the Making of a U.S. Third World Left (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006).
170. Delegation from the US, United States in the United Nations, 6.
171. Tyson, Radio Free Dixie, 241.
172. Charles Siragusa, Classified Report of the United States Delegation to the Second Meeting of the Inter-American Consultative Group on Narcotics Control,” January 4, 1962.; Box 54, 2nd Inter-American Conference, Brazil, 1961; 170–74–4; NACP: 1–2.
173. Siragusa, Classified Report, 5.
174. US House, Appropriations for 1963, 276. In fact it has been shown that anti-Castro Cubans in the United States were deeply involved in the illicit drug trade; see Peter Dale Scott and Jonathan Marshall, Cocaine Politics: Drugs, Armies, and the CIA in Central America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991).
175. US House, Appropriations for 1964, 483.
CONCLUSION
1. US, House, Subcommittee on Departments of Treasury and Post Office and Executive Office Appropriations, Treasury-Post Office Departments and Executive Office Appropriations for 1964, 88th Cong., 1st sess., 26–28 February, 4–8, 11–14 March 1963, 445–46.
2. US, Treasury Department, Bureau of Narcotics, Traffic in Opium and Other Dangerous Drugs for the Year Ended December 31, 1950 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1957), 9, 18.
3. W.E. Clapham, Product Coordinator, Narcotic Products, Merck & Co., Inc. to Members and the Secretariat of the UN CND, May 9, 1955; File 1230–1, United Nations Tenth Session #2; 170–74–5; DEA; RG 170; NACP.
4. Albert J. Turner to Commissioner Anslinger, May 22, 1958; File 1230–1, United Nations Thirteenth Session #2; 170–74–5; DEA; RG 170; NACP.
5. Ralph Hayes to Commissioner Harry J. Anslinger, May 5, 1955; File 0480–11, #2 Drugs: Coca Leaves (January 1954–66); 170–74–4; DEA; RG 170; NACP.
6. Anslinger to Mr. Rossow, November 24, 1962; File 0345, 3rd Inter-American Conference, Lima, Peru, 11–26 through 12–8–62; Box 54; 170–74–4; DEA; RG 170; NACP; Donald H. Francis to Edgard Velasco Arboleda, November 29, 1962; File 0345, 3rd Inter-American Conference, Lima, Peru, 11–26 through 12–8–62; Box 54; 170–74–4; DEA; RG 170; NACP.
7. Siragusa to Giordano, “Consultive Group on the Problems of the Coca Leaf,” November 29, 1962; Box 54; 170–74–4; DEA; RG170; NACP.
8. The deep involvement of Coca-Cola executives in these negotiations has also been described by Paul Gootenberg in “Secret Ingredients: The Politics of Coca in US-Peruvian Relations, 1915–1965,” Journal of Latin American Studies 36, no. 2 (May 2004): 261–62. Gootenberg argues Coca-Cola did not dominate US cocaine policy toward Peru, but rather was “a junior partner in evolving US drug policies” (265). Whatever their relative influence, I am more interested in pointing out the economic priorities that structured drug control toward the interests of US corporations, which were able through their very collaboration with drug control to limit scrutiny of their own direct involvement in marketing products that involved controlled substances, and in the process further entrench imperial inequities in the trade.
9. Miguel E. Bustamente, Secretary General, PASB to Miss Howell, Liaison Officer, WHO, March 29th, 1951; CC-4–1-AMRO; WHOA.
10. A. Drobney, Acting Chief, Health Promotion Branch, PASB to Dr. R.L. Coigney, Chief LOUN, Chief WHO Liaison Office, United Nations, October 7, 1960; A2/112/C/5; WHOA.
11. A.J. Lucas, M.D., Chief Section I, Division of Narcotic Drugs to Dr. Coigney, November 9, 1960; A2/112/C/5; WHOA.
12. “Preparations for the Implementation of the Single Convention of 1961”; Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs; A2/36/3; WHOA.
13. James W. Brown, Jr. MD to Director of Food and Drug Administration, July 29, 1969; Folder 521–521.95; 88–130–62–33–2; File 521.04, Cocaine; General Subject Files, 1938–1974; FDA; RG 88; NACP.
14. This information can be found on the Drug Enforcement Administration’s Diversion Control Division’s website: www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/index.html.
15. United Nations, Narcotic Drugs: Estimated World Requirements for 2012—Statistics for 2010 (New York: UN Office on Drugs and Crime, April 2012), 206–7. Peru is now a major manufacturer of cocaine once again (although not for export to the United States). The United States and Peru are the only national manufacturers of cocaine, and while UN statistics on the surface suggest Peru’s manufacture is greater, since cocaine produced as a by-product in the process of making Coca-Cola is not included in the UN tally of cocaine yield, it seems that in fact the United States likely remains the largest producer worldwide manufacturer of cocaine.
16. United Nations, Economic and Social Council, Report of the Commission of Enquiry on the Coca Leaf, May 1950, Fifth Year, Twelfth Session, Special Supplement 1. Official Record (E/1666/Add.1) (Lake Success, New York: United Nations, July 1950), 82.
17. Economic and Social Council, United Nations, “Substantive Session of 2009,” (E/2009/78), July 6–31, 2009, 4–5.
18. Global Commission on Drug Policy, War on Drugs: Report of the Global Commission on Drug Policy (June 2011), 8, accessed November 2, 2012, www.globalcommissionondrugs.org/wp-content/themes/gcdp_v1/pdf/Global_Commission_Report_English.pdf.
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