5. Now the student writes the whole word again while saying it aloud and blending the syllable sounds, transcontinental.
6. Finally, the student uses the new word in a sentence: The transcontinental railroad connected the eastern and western parts of the United States.
Using Context Clues. The context in which an unfamiliar word is used can often give hints as to its meaning. Help students use context clues by doing the following:
• Select an authentic text passage containing the unfamiliar words that can be defined through context. Ensure that the students have enough prior knowledge that they can reasonably determine the words’ meanings.
• Model the process of using context clues to determine meaning by going through the steps of the Context Clues Strategy (see box).
• Think aloud as you use the strategy so that students can follow your reasoning.
• Explain how you used the clues to arrive at the meaning of the word.
• Identify the key words surrounding the target word that helped you decide on its meaning.
• Verify the word’s meaning in the dictionary.
• Have students practice the model by giving them a page of text with three unknown words highlighted.
Helping With Comprehension
Students who are struggling readers often have difficulty comprehending what they are reading. Strategies that help students relate the content to their prior knowledge, practice mental imagery, and locate the main idea can be very effective aids to comprehension. Here is some general advice you can give students to help them with comprehension:
• Look over what you will be reading, noting words and phrases that are in boldface or italics. Look also for any charts, graphs, and pictures. Review any chapter summaries and related questions that are useful to guide your reading. Not everything in the text is equally important, so read to capture the main ideas.
• Take notes or draw diagrams while reading to help you remember main phrases and ideas. Use graphic organizers and mind maps, too.
• Read the text more than once.
• When you encounter an unknown word, try to guess its meaning by looking at the context. The sentences immediately before and after can give you good clues to determine meaning.
• Try to make connections between main ideas and their supporting details.
• Each time you finish a paragraph, stop and try to summarize it in your own words.
• Discuss what you have read with others who have read the same text.
Narrative and Expository Text. Some strategies need to be modified depending on the nature of the text. Narrative text is commonly associated with literature instruction and focuses on settings, characters, plots, conflicts, conflict resolution, and themes. Expository text is more commonly found in science and social studies texts and focuses on acquiring and processing information related to comparisons, cause and effect, and sequencing. In mathematics, expository text relates to the semantic and linguistics structures necessary to translate word problems into mathematical expressions.
Using Prior Knowledge
Students bring with them a wide range of knowledge and experiences about many topics. Prior knowledge significantly influences a reader’s comprehension of new topics, concepts, and vocabulary found in content-area texts. Comprehension of those texts relies heavily on the students’ prior knowledge and their ability to apply it to the topics being covered in the content area. Reading difficult-content text can be made easier if students can relate the reading to what they already know. Before assigning a difficult text selection,
• preview the text with them;
• ask them what they already know about the content of the selection (a concept, time period, or topic);
• discuss and explain any unusual or technical words; and
• use visual aids whenever possible.
Using Mental Imagery
You will recall from Chapter 2 that the visual recognition systems play a key role in learning to read. So it is no surprise that brain studies show substantial activity in other visual centers when someone is reading (Just, Newman, Keller, McEleney, & Carpenter, 2004). Readers often form mental images or pictures while reading. These visualizations help them remember and understand what they have read. Encourage students to form visual images of what they are reading by urging them to picture a character, a setting, a model in motion, or an event described in the text. Studies show that this strategy can be very effective, especially with slower readers (e.g. Center, Freeman, Robertson, & Outhred, 1999; Gambrell & Koskinen, 2002; Hibbing & Rankin-Erickson, 2003).
Imagery runs the gamut from simple concrete pictures to complex motor learning and multistep procedures. Because imagery is still not a common instructional strategy, it should be implemented early and gradually. These guidelines are adapted from Parrott (1986), Vesely and Gryder (2007), and West, Farmer, and Wolff (1991) for using imagery as a powerful aid to understanding text and retention.
• Prompting. Use prompts for telling students to form mental images of the content being learned. They can be as simple as “Form a picture in your mind of . . . ” or more complex directions. Prompts should be specific to the content or task and should be accompanied by relevant photographs, charts, or arrays, especially for younger children.
• Modeling. Model imagery by describing your own image to the class and explaining how that image helps you recall and use the current learning. Also, model a procedure and have the students mentally practice the steps.
• Interaction. Strive for rich, vivid images where items interact. The richer the image, the more information it can include. If there are two or more items in the images, they should be visualized as acting on each other. If the recall is a ball and a bat, for example, imagine the bat hitting the ball.
• Reinforcement. Have students talk about the images they formed and get feedback from others on the accuracy, vividness, and interaction of the images. Talk provides mental rehearsal and helps students to remember the image for an extended period of time.
• Add context. Whenever possible, add context to the interaction to increase retention and recall. For example, if the task is to recall prefixes and suffixes, the context could be a parade with the prefixes in front urging the suffixes in the rear to catch up.
• Avoid overloading the image. Although good images are complete representations of what is to be remembered, they should not overload the working memory’s capacity in older students of about seven items.
Locating the Main Idea
Help students develop a strategy for locating the main idea in fiction and nonfiction passages.
• Model the procedure used in the Strategy for Locating the Main Idea (see box).
• After modeling, lead the students through guided, then independent, practice.
• Use graphic organizers that are appropriate for the passage.
• The paragraph summaries can take several forms, depending on whether you are using narrative or expository text. Have students identify which type of text they are reading, since they are different in form and intent.
• Narrative text:
• Expository text:
• Consider using cooperative learning for this activity, because it gives students opportunities to share and critique their summaries. This oral rehearsal aids in retention of important ideas, concepts, and details.
• If students have difficulty, provide summaries that are partially filled in and let the students furnish the missing details.
Paraphrasing for Comprehension
Paraphrasing is commonly thought of as copying information from a text source and changing a few words. That process rarely results in retention of learning because the copying act can be done almost automatically and without much conscious thought. If the purpose of paraphrasing is to give students opportunities to get a deeper understanding of the text, to make connections to what they already know, and to enhance remembering, then a much m
ore systematic process must be followed.
Effective paraphrasing incorporates reading, writing, listening, and speaking, thereby activating the brain’s frontal lobe and leading to a fuller comprehension of the course material. It can be used in all content areas and with students in the upper elementary grades and beyond, and it can help students learn from many different types of texts, including fiction and nonfiction.
The process encourages active student participation; provides for mental, oral, and written rehearsal of newly learned material; and enhances comprehension and retention. At the same time, it develops reading, communication, and creative skills (Fisk & Hurst, 2003). See the box on this page for the guidelines and steps for using paraphrasing successfully in the classroom.
SOURCE: Adapted from Fisk and Hurst (2003).
Reading Aloud to the Class
Consider reading certain parts of the text to the class, especially those parts that use difficult or highly technical words or describe complex situations. Remember that many students can understand something when they hear it even though they may not be able to read about it themselves. This is particularly true for English language learners who often understand oral language much better than written words. Reading aloud can also be used to make connections between texts, to develop background information, or for enjoyment. Where appropriate, the oral reading can be done by other students, school volunteers, or parents. Another option is for you or a student to record certain text sections and have the recordings available for student use in the school’s media center.
Teachers sometimes underestimate the effectiveness of read-aloud activities. Yet research studies show that, when used on a regular basis, especially in the elementary grades, they can boost students’ comprehension as well as increase the students’ knowledge and vocabulary in the content areas (Santoro, Chard, Howard, & Baker, 2008).
Rewriting Content Material
Some course materials may have a particularly high level of reading difficulty. Rewriting the material at a reading level closer to that of the students who are having problems allows those students to gain confidence in their ability to understand the content despite their reading difficulties. Another possibility is to have students who do understand the course material rewrite it for their classmates. Students often rewrite content in language that their peers are more likely to understand. This approach reinforces both reading and writing skills. Of course, the teacher should check these rewrites for accuracy.
Incorporating Supplemental Textbooks/Internet Sites
Identify textbooks and Internet sites that cover the same material as the course text but are written at a lower reading level. This may require using several sources because it is unlikely that one source will cover all the course content. Trade books are another possibility. They also present concepts covered in the primary textbook but are generally at a lower reading level. Furthermore, trade books help students recognize that the study of content subjects is not limited to school textbooks. By presenting concepts in many different ways, supplemental texts and appropriate Internet sites enhance student learning (Fenty & Barnett, 2013).
Using Audiovisual Aids and Technology
Audiovisual aids and technology are a great help to students with reading problems. Many students today have grown up in and become acclimated to a multimedia environment. Whenever possible, use videotapes/DVDs, audiotapes/CDs, television, computer programs, and other technology to supplement and accompany direct instruction. All students benefit from the use of these materials because they increase interest and participation. However, care must be taken that the content delivered by the technology is targeted to the lesson’s learning objective. Otherwise, manipulating the technology becomes the focus of attention, rather than the subject matter.
Promoting Cooperative Learning Groups and Differentiated Instruction
Cooperative learning (Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 2008) and differentiated instruction (Sousa & Tomlinson, 2011) remain two of the most effective strategies in classes that have a wide range of student abilities, including reading. Cooperative learning allows students to work in teams and to be assigned tasks that match their ability and that contribute to the whole group effort. As the team members interact, students have opportunities to share and learn the concepts being studied. In differentiated instruction, the teacher adjusts the activities aimed at acquiring the learning objective to meet the different needs of individual students. Numerous studies have shown both strategies to be effective in significantly increasing student comprehension of subject-area content.
SEQUENCING THE READING STRATEGIES
Now that we have discussed some of the strategies content-area teachers can use to help their students comprehend course materials, the next step is to look at the sequence in which the strategies should be presented for maximum effect on student comprehension. The sequence can be divided into three phases: activities before, during, and after reading the content-area text (Isakson, Isakson, & Windham, 2011).
Phase 1: Before Reading
The purpose of these activities is to activate the learner’s prior knowledge and to stimulate the brain’s memory recall and imagery systems to spark curiosity, to motivate, and to facilitate retention of learning. Deciding which strategies to use depends on the material to be read and the background knowledge of the students.
• Getting a feel for the text. Students can learn quite a bit from the way a text is organized. Suggest that they look carefully at the title, headings, and introduction. The first sentence of each section or paragraph usually reveals what the ensuing text is about. Also, study any visuals, such as graphs and tables, and look for any vocabulary words that may be in bold type. Questions at the end of a section or chapter are good for review and summary.
• Questions to ask. Using questions to engage students in a dialogue about something they are about to read can clarify their thinking, stimulate interest, and help them determine what to expect from reading the material.
Make connections between the learner’s background knowledge and the reading. “This passage is about_____. What do you already know about this?”
State a purpose for reading the passage. “This section is about_____. What are some things we could learn about this?”
Make predictions. “This passage is about_____. What do you think this could be about? What might happen to you if you_____?”
• Select core vocabulary. Choose the words that are likely to be unfamiliar and difficult and present them on the board or on paper. These words are often written in bold or italic type. Ask students to write a definition, even if it is only a guess. Collect and return the papers at the end of Phase 3 to complete by filling in the correct definitions. Then ask the students to use the word in a sentence to ensure they understand its meaning.
• Write out the predictions. Ask students to write out what they think the passage will be about and what they might learn from it.
• Analogies and visual images. Relate the material in the new reading to knowledge the students already possess. Ask them to think about what they know that is similar to what they think will be in the passage.
• Concept maps. Concept maps used before reading help students identify important concepts and ideas and how they are related to each other. By understanding these relationships in advance, students are more likely to comprehend their text readings.
Phase 2: During Reading
These strategies are designed to address two difficulties that poor readers have with content-area texts: (1) The students spend far more time struggling with individual words than constructing meaning from text. (2) The main ideas in a text are often deeply embedded, and often too many concepts are superficially presented at once.
• Questions to ask. These questions help students review what they are learning while reading, confirm or change their predictions, and make connections to prior readings.
Clarify and review what has happened so far. “What
are some things you have already learned about_____?”
Confirm or create new predictions. “Now that you have learned_____, will you keep or change your predictions?”
Make connections to other readings.
• Reciprocal teaching techniques. As explained earlier, this is a powerful technique because students assume a dominant role in their own learning. It includes the four strategies of questioning, clarifying, summarizing, and predicting. Teachers and students become partners in improving the students’ understanding of the content material and their ability to monitor their own comprehension. Although the technique was developed years ago, it is not part of the common practice of secondary content-area teachers, mainly because they have not experienced it. When it is used, however, research studies have demonstrated that students who worked with reciprocal teaching increased their group participation and use of the strategies taught, learned from the passages studied, and increased their learning when reading independently. Furthermore, the studies showed that the technique could be used in various settings at different grade levels, and that the students maintained the reading gains they achieved (e.g., Gruenbaum, 2012; Schünemann, Spörer, & Brunstein, 2013; Slater & Horstman, 2002; Yang, 2010).
The technique takes about 10 days to teach, during which time the teacher is doing a lot of modeling. Eventually, the teacher increasingly hands over responsibility to the students who assume the role of teacher/leader and lead group discussions with other students. The teacher monitors the groups and intervenes to keep the students on task and to facilitate the discussion. See the box on the next page for an explanation of the steps and procedures involved in reciprocal teaching.
How the Brain Learns to Read Page 25