Recall from earlier chapters that the human brain seeks patterns in order to interpret its environment. This same pattern-seeking trait applies to reading content-area material. As the brain reads content-area text, such as science or social studies, it looks for patterns of thought that can be connected with past experience and comprehended. Each content area comprises unique patterns of organized knowledge that the reader must identify in order to successfully understand that particular subject. When content-area teachers clearly identify the types of patterns that students should look for when they read the subject text, they help their students establish the mind-set their brains need to make sense of the printed text. But have content-area teachers been trained to do this?
Figure 7.7 This web diagram depicts some of the characteristics of vertebrates. The web could be expanded by adding more characteristics and giving specific examples of each type.
Disciplinary Literacy
We often hear the expression “Every teacher is a reading teacher.” But do content-area teachers have the skills to fulfill this expectation? Many subject-area teachers were required to take courses in reading and writing in their content area during their preservice training. These courses usually focus on general reading comprehension or developing study skills related to the subject matter. However, little attention has been paid to the literary dimensions of their subject. In addition to the actual content knowledge, each discipline has specialized vocabulary, standards of what constitutes quality and precision in the field, and the specialized reading and writing needed to communicate its content and discoveries. A study of disciplinary literacy found that experts from mathematics, chemistry, and history read their respective texts quite differently (Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008). These content-area experts discussed the findings with college teachers who prepare secondary teachers in these areas and recommended different comprehension strategies for work with adolescents. Table 7.2 summarizes their findings and shows how experts and researchers in the disciplines do, in fact, approach the reading of their texts very differently.
Table 7.2 Differences in Reading Patterns Among Disciplines
SOURCE: Adapted from Shanahan and Shanahan (2008).
The Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts present a set of goals for integrating advanced literacy instruction into content areas in middle and high schools. How will the states and school districts meet these challenges? Professional development programs across the country are now trying to prepare teachers for these tasks. Properly executed, these programs can give teachers the strategies that lead to increased student achievement in both reading comprehension skills and subject content learning (e.g., Greenleaf et al., 2011).
The recent release of the Next Generation Science Standards also places new demands on the nature of science, technology, and engineering instruction (Achieve, 2013). These standards focus on a smaller set of core concepts in each discipline, exchanging the time now spent on the rote memorization of facts with an emphasis on deeper understanding and application of the content. They also include cross-cutting concepts that are integrated with the Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts and Mathematical Practice.
Here are some of the patterns of organized knowledge that comprise some of the school’s curriculum areas.
Art/Music/Drama
• Dialogue that describes, visualizes, and portrays actions
• Interpreting language through movement
• Readers’ theatre to link oral and written language
• Role-playing to practice and interpret dialogue
• Understanding the perspective of the artist, composer, or writer
Literature
• Describing and visualizing the setting
• Character development of main and supporting characters, their authenticity, and their relationships
• Distinguishing plot and episodes
• Understanding the literary piece’s genre
• Discovering the moral, theme, or message
Mathematics
• Patterns and key words for solving word problems
• Symbolic relationships and operators
• Searching for evidence and reasoning
• Understanding graphic relationships
Science
• Types of classification
• Experimental procedures
• Cause and effect
• Steps in problem solving
• Definitions and explanations, with or without diagrams
Social Studies
• Definitions and explanations
• Cause and effect
• Chronological or sequential events
• Comparing and contrasting
• Distinguishing fact and opinion
Studies indicate that a large number of students of all ethnic backgrounds are functioning below grade level in their reading (NAEP, 2011). This is a particularly difficult problem for students reading in the content areas where they are reading to acquire knowledge and skills in subjects such as mathematics, health, science, and social studies. In these subjects, the vocabulary used in the texts is often technical and written at a more difficult readability level. In this chapter, I have offered numerous tested strategies that could be used to aid these students in acquiring and understanding vocabulary and in gaining a more accurate and deeper comprehension of the content they read. My hope is that teachers willing and determined to make “reading to learn” a successful experience for their students will consider adding these strategies to their repertoire.
Answer to Test Question #9
Question: There is little that secondary school content-area teachers can do to improve the comprehension skills of their students who are poor readers.
Answer: False. Content-area teachers can use numerous tested strategies that aid poor readers in understanding vocabulary and in gaining a more accurate and deeper comprehension of the content they read.
Teaching English Language Learners in the Content Areas
Working with older English language learners (ELLs) in the content areas is especially challenging because the students are attempting to learn both conversational English and academic English at the same time. Despite these challenges, it can be done successfully. For a full explanation and instructional suggestions of how to teach ELLs in the content areas, see How the ELL Brain Learns (Sousa, 2011b).
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION/REFLECTION
• What are some successful strategies for helping students comprehend content material?
• In what sequence should these strategies be used?
• What are some patterns that exist in the organization of content in different subject areas?
What’s Coming?
The next and last chapter looks at the basic components of a successful reading program. It summarizes what students need to know as they learn to read and what teachers need to do to make that process more successful for all students. The chapter also suggests professional development activities for teachers and school principals, presents some ways of closing the reading achievement gap, and discusses the importance of implementing action research in schools and classrooms.
8
Putting It All Together
I think it’s the books that you read when you’re young that live with you forever.
—J. K. Rowling (1965–)
THE BASICS OF A SUCCESSFUL READING PROGRAM
Surely by now it is clear that learning to read is no easy task. Unlike spoken language, there are no areas of the brain prewired for reading. Thus, there is no reason to consider reading to be a natural ability like speaking. Human beings have been talking for thousands of years, while reading is a relatively recent and quite artificial accomplishment. Toddlers seem to be preprogrammed to talk, and they usually learn to do so without formal instruction. On the other hand, the fact that large numbers of adults never do learn to read suggests that this ability is not in the same ca
tegory.
Of course, some children learn to read with minimal instruction. These children, however, do not as a result read stories in a qualitatively different way than children taught via systematic phonics. The only difference seems to be that they have managed to crack the phonetic code on their own, without much teaching. How they learned the letter-sound correspondences seems to make no difference to the end result. Children who have become good readers through the whole-language approach have no advantage over children who have become good readers through systematic phonics. There is no harm in some children learning to read on their own. The problem is that the vast majority do not. Consequently, one of the major long-term goals of schools is to graduate students who are lifelong and highly competent readers.
Successfully achieving that long-term goal is not easy, because some barriers need to be overcome. These include teachers uninformed about the new understandings of how the brain learns to read, outdated materials for teaching reading, outdated methods for teaching reading, and the overemphasis on test scores. Moreover, to accomplish a long-term goal, short-term goals must first be achieved. I offer here some suggested short-term goals that I hope educators will consider. They are based on the current state of research on how we learn to read and on studies of effective instruction in reading.
Expose Teachers to Current Scientific Knowledge About How the Brain Learns to Read
During the past 15 years, research developments in neuroscience and cognitive psychology have added greatly to our understanding of how the brain learns to read and the nature of the problems that can arise during that process. We now know enough from this research to put many myths about reading to rest. We have a better idea of which instructional strategies will increase the likelihood that more children will learn to read successfully. The research supports the continued use of some strategies while doubting the effectiveness of others. Armed with this knowledge, teachers can make better choices in reading programs and in their own instructional methods. That is the good news. The bad news is that the implications of this research for our practice are not getting to many classroom teachers fast enough. Nevertheless, teachers of early reading are aware that there is a growing body of newer research on reading, so word is slowly getting out.
Teachers of reading must have access to the summaries of findings from a broad base of research on reading-related topics. They also need to recognize different types of studies. For example:
• Experimental studies provide generalizations that offer sound advice based on trends.
• Correlational studies usually provide reasoned hypotheses about how two variables can affect each other.
• Case studies help teachers consider new methods for instruction and assessment.
The responsibility of the school district is to engage teachers in ongoing study of the changing knowledge base produced by discoveries in scientific research on the reading process. Teachers need to be a vital part of the decision-making process in schools because it is through their work that children learn to read. With this approach, teachers recognize that teaching is not just an art form anymore; it is now a science and an art form. By staying abreast of scientific developments, they can make informed decisions and contribute to locally developed, scientifically based programs of instruction and assessment in reading.
Teacher Preparation
Because phonemic awareness (PA) is a critical component of acquiring the alphabetic principle, it is important that teachers in this area be well trained in the concept of phonemic awareness and how to teach it. Yet research in best practices suggests that prospective elementary teachers need more instruction in phonemic awareness in their teacher preparation courses. One study examined the phonemic awareness knowledge of 223 first-year teachers who were certified in elementary education, special education, and early childhood education (Cheesman, McGuire, Shankweiler, & Coyne, 2009). The study revealed that a large number of first-year teachers “(a) have limited understanding of what constitutes PA instruction, (b) cannot reliably distinguish PA and phonics, and (c) cannot reliably identify or count phonemes in written words when the spelling is not transparent” (Cheesman et al., 2009, p. 285).
This disconcerting finding may be due in part to the lack of knowledge that some teacher educators possess regarding the linguistic characteristics of the English language. In one major study, researchers first administered a survey of language concepts to 78 college and university instructors who taught reading education classes to prospective reading teachers (Joshi et al., 2009). The instructors were familiar with syllabic knowledge, but they performed poorly on concepts relating to phonemes and morphemes. In a second part of this study, the researchers interviewed 40 more instructors about best practices in teaching the five components (phonological awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension) identified by the National Reading Panel. Eighty percent of instructors incorrectly defined phonological awareness and did not mention phonics instruction as a desirable method to use for beginning readers, particularly for students who were at risk for reading difficulties.
If university programs are not adequately preparing teachers of reading, then this responsibility falls on school districts who must incorporate scientifically based research strategies into their professional development programs. District administrators who hire prospective reading teachers might consider discussing this situation with college administrators who supervise the teacher preparation courses in reading.
Develop a Scientifically Based Reading Program and Stick With It
The scientific evidence is clear: Learning to read successfully requires the ability to manipulate sounds into words, to break down words into their component sounds, and to match sounds with the letters that represent them. A scientifically based reading program, therefore, will focus on developing phonological awareness, and then on the more sophisticated phonemic awareness (see Chapter 2). Children need to know and recognize the alphabet in print and be able to match those letters with the sounds they represent. Mastering the alphabetic principle is essential to becoming a proficient reader, and instructional methods that explicitly teach this principle are more effective than those that do not. Learning phonics is especially important for children who are at risk for not learning to read (see also Chapter 2). In addition to phonics instruction, using whole-language activities as a supplement helps to make reading enjoyable and meaningful (see Chapter 3). The reading program should emphasize vocabulary building, and the rules of grammar and syntax, and include activities that lead to reading fluency and comprehension.
Reading programs that overemphasize extensive and repetitive drills in phonics will bore students, and programs that overemphasize guessing how words sound and what they mean will be a source of frustration for students, especially those at risk of not learning to read. Phonological awareness, phonemic awareness, and the alphabetic principle should be taught in interesting and innovative ways, using a variety of materials. Usually, the program begins with coded texts to reinforce letter-sound correspondences. But teachers should select other high-interest sources of reading that maintain student attention and demonstrate that learning to read can be enjoyable.
Does Technology Affect Motivation to Read?
Concerns abound about whether the technologically centered gadgets that children play with today, including computers, tablets, and smartphones, will lessen their motivation to read. The concerns are unfounded, because a major portion of computer interactions still involves reading and writing, and that will continue to be the case for the near future. Studies show that elementary students using laptops display increased intrinsic motivation and persistence in completing schoolwork (e.g., Mouza, 2008). These students often go beyond the requirements of assignments, therefore improving the quality of their finished work product. When used appropriately either in our out of school, technology allows students to direct their own learning at their own pace, and engage in deeper examination of the topics thr
ough reading. Parents and teachers need to find ways of using the attraction of the technology to lure children into working with programs that will help them learn to read and read to learn.
Once a program with these components has been developed or selected, stick with it. Too much energy, teacher goodwill, and resources are wasted when districts leap from one reading program to another, based on the latest political favorite or on which publisher has made the greatest offer. Consistency is essential if we expect the program to have a lasting impact on developing the reading skills of students in the early grades.
What Skills Should Be in Place by Grade 3?
Most researchers agree that reading skills have to be in place by the end of third grade if the student is to cope successfully with the increasing reading requirements of the ensuing grades. What reading skills should our students have acquired at that time to demonstrate that they can continue to progress as successful readers? The Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts, among other sets of reading standards, suggest that by the end of third grade, students should acquire critical literacy, which includes the skill and will to use language in all its forms as well as to solve problems and communicate effectively (NGA & CCSSO, 2010). To do so, children need to
• know and apply grade-level phonics and word analysis skills in decoding words (the alphabetic principle);
• identify and know the meaning of the most common prefixes and derivational suffixes;
• decode words with common Latin suffixes;
• decode multisyllable words;
• read grade-appropriate irregularly spelled words;
• read with sufficient accuracy and fluency to support comprehension;
• read grade-level text with purpose and understanding;
How the Brain Learns to Read Page 27