Comprehension. The ability to understand and attribute meaning to what is heard or read.
Content-area reading. Reading in curriculum areas where students learn course content, such as facts and concepts, rather than learning skills.
Corpus callosum. The bridge of nerve fibers that connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres and allows communication between them.
Decoding. The ability to use the alphabetic principle to sound out a word by recognizing which phonemes are represented by the letters, and then blending those phonemes into a legitimate word.
Dendrite. The branched extension from the cell body of a neuron that receives impulses from nearby neurons through synaptic contacts.
Deep orthography. A language writing system, such as English, that does not have a one-to-one correspondence between the spoken phonemes and the letters that represent them. The same phoneme can be represented by different letters in words, and the same letters can represent different phonemes.
Digraph. A phoneme consisting of two successive letters that is pronounced as a single sound, as the -ea in clean, the ch- in child, or the -ng in song.
Dyslexia. A persistent developmental problem in learning to read. In 2002, the International Dyslexia Association adopted the following definition: “Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede the growth of vocabulary and background knowledge.”
Educational neuroscience. Also called Mind, Brain, and Education or Neuroeducation, this is a new area of scientific inquiry exploring the relationships and applications of discoveries in neuroscience and psychology to educational practice (pedagogy).
Encoding. The ability to attach sounds to letter combinations to spell and write words.
Event-related potential (ERP). An electrical signal emitted by the brain in response to a stimulus such as a picture or a word. The signals are detected by electrodes pasted to the scalp.
Fixation. The period of time when our eyes stop after making rapid movements across the page during reading. It is during these fixations of about 200 to 250 milliseconds that the eyes actually acquire information from the text.
Fluency. The ability to read a text orally with speed, accuracy, and proper expression.
Frontal lobe. The front part of the brain that monitors higher-order thinking, directs problem solving, and regulates the excesses of the emotional system.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). A process that measures blood flow to the brain to record areas of high and low neural activity.
Genetic material. The chromosomes and genes present in all body cells that direct one’s growth and development.
Gist. An interpretation and mental representation of the meaning of a phrase, sentence, paragraph, passage, and so on.
Grapheme. The smallest part of written language that represents a single phoneme in the spelling of a word. A grapheme may be just one letter, such as b, d, g, or s, or several letters, as in ck, sh, igh, and th.
Graphic organizer. A visual representation of knowledge, concepts, or ideas, such as with charts, diagrams, and timelines.
Gray matter. The thin layer of cells that cover the surface of the cerebrum, also called the cerebral cortex.
Gyrus. Plural: gyri. A ridge (hill) in the cerebral cortex generally surrounded by sulci.
Hippocampus. Meaning “seahorse” because of its shape, it is part of the brain’s limbic (emotional) system and plays an important role in consolidating information from working memory to long-term memory and in spatial navigation.
Immediate memory. A temporary memory where information is processed briefly (in seconds) and subconsciously, then either blocked or passed on to working memory.
Invented spelling. The creation of plausible spellings of real words using one’s knowledge of letter names and sounds.
Lexicon. A person’s mental dictionary consisting of words and their meanings.
Limbic system. An area located at the base of the cerebrum containing the structures that contribute to memory and emotional processing.
Long-term storage. The areas of the brain where memories are stored permanently.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). A process that uses radio waves to disturb the alignment of the body’s atoms in a magnetic field to produce computer-processed, high-contrast images of internal structures.
Meta-analysis. A statistical process that combines the results of different studies to look for patterns of agreement and disagreement among those results, and any other interesting relationships. The results are usually reported as effect sizes.
Millisecond (ms). A unit of time that represents one one-thousandth of a second.
Morpheme. The smallest units into which words can be divided that have meaning, as in un-in-habit-able (four morphemes).
Morphology. The component of grammar that studies how words are built from pieces called morphemes, and how affixes change the meaning of words in predictable ways.
Neuron. The basic cell making up the brain and nervous system, consisting of a cell body, a long fiber (axon) that transmits impulses, and many shorter fibers (dendrites) that receive them.
Nonword. A string of letters that cannot be pronounced and that have no meaning, such as ndwsb or tgzaq.
Occipital lobe. Located at the rear of the brain, this area is mainly responsible for visual processing.
Occipitotemporal area. The area of the brain that overlaps portions of the occipital and temporal lobes where all the important information about a word is stored, including its spelling, pronunciation, and meaning.
Onset. The initial consonant sound of a syllable, such as the t- sound in tag, or the sw- sound in swim.
Oral reading accuracy (ORA). A measurement calculated by subtracting the number of word errors during reading (not counting repetitions or self-corrected errors) from the total number of words read, and dividing that result by the total number of words. The resulting decimal is multiplied by 100 to yield a percentage.
Oral reading fluency (ORF). Also known as words correct per minute (WCPM), this measure is calculated by subtracting the number of word errors during one minute of reading (not counting repetitions or self-corrected errors) from the total number of words read.
Orthography. The written system that describes a spoken language. Spelling and punctuation represent the orthographic features of written English.
Overlearning. The ability to perform a task with little attention or conscious thought.
Parietal lobe. Located between the occipital and frontal lobe, this area integrates sensory information, and helps in determining spatial sense and navigation.
Parietotemporal area. The area of the brain that overlaps portions of the parietal and temporal lobes where word analysis is thought to occur during reading.
Positron emission tomography (PET). A process that traces the metabolism of radioactively-tagged sugar in brain tissue, producing a color image of cell activity.
Phoneme. The smallest units of sound that make up a spoken language. For example, the word go has two phonemes, guh and oh. The English language has about 44 phonemes. Some phonemes are represented by more than one letter.
Phonemic awareness. The ability to hear, identify, and manipulate phonemes in spoken syllables and words.
Phonics. The understanding that there is a predictable relationship between the sounds of spoken language (phonemes) and the letters that represent those sound in written language (graphemes).
Phonologic memory. The ability to retain verbal bits of information (phonemes) in working memory.
; Phonological awareness. In addition to phonemic awareness, it includes the ability to recognize that sentences comprise words, words comprise syllables, and syllables comprise onsets and rimes that can be broken down into phonemes.
Phonology. The component of grammar that studies the sound patterns of a language, including how phonemes are combined to form words, as well as patterns of timing, stress, and intonation.
Plasticity. The ability of the brain to reorganize itself and form new neural networks as a result of changes in its environment.
Prefrontal cortex. The part of the brain located in the frontal lobe that lies just behind the forehead and that carries out executive functions, such as assessing options, predicting outcomes, and suppressing unacceptable social and emotional urges.
Prosody. The unique rhythm, cadence, accent patterns, and pitch of a language when spoken.
Pseudoword. A string of letters that can be pronounced but has no meaning (also called nonsense or invented words), such as gebin or splor.
Regression. The movement of the eyes backward over a written line to reread text.
Rehearsal. The reprocessing of information in working memory.
Rime. A part of a syllable that contains the vowel and all that follows it, as the -ag sound in tag or the -im sound in swim.
Semantics. The study of how meaning is derived from words and other text forms.
Shallow orthography. A language writing system, such as Italian, Spanish, or Finnish, that has a consistent correspondence between the spoken phonemes and the letters that represent those phonemes in writing.
Silent sustained reading (SSR). A strategy in which students are assigned to do silent reading for a specified number of minutes each day. Despite its continued usage, its effectiveness has not been proved.
Sulcus. Plural: sulci. A crevice (valley) on the surface of the brain.
Syllable. A word part that contains a vowel or vowel sound pronounced as a unit: speak-er, a-lone.
Synapse. The junction between two neurons consisting of a minute gap where impulses pass from one neuron to the next.
Syntax. The rules and conventions that govern the order of words in phrases, clauses, and sentences.
Temporal lobe. Located behind the ears, this region is involved in visual memory, auditory processing, and comprehending language.
Visual word form area (VWFA). Located at the boundary of the occipital and temporal lobes on the left side of the brain, this region plays an essential role in the visual analysis of letter and word shape.
Wernicke’s area. The region of the brain, usually located in the left hemisphere, thought to be responsible for sense and meaning in one’s native language(s).
Whole-language method. An approach to reading instruction that emphasizes the recognition of words as wholes and de-emphasizes letter-sound relationships.
Word blindness. The inability to read words even when a person’s eyes are optically normal.
Word form. The neural model that encompasses the spelling, pronunciation, and meaning of a word.
Working memory. The temporary memory of limited capacity where information is processed consciously.
References
Achieve. (2013). Next generation science standards. Washington, DC: Author.
Adlof, S. M., Catts, H. W., & Lee, J. (2010). Kindergarten predictors of second versus eighth grade reading comprehension impairments. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43(4), 332–345.
Ahmed, S. T., & Lombardino, L. J. (2000). Invented spelling: An assessment and intervention protocol for kindergarten children. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 22, 19–28.
Alvermann, D. E., & Mallozzi, C. A. (2010). Primary and elementary/middle grades reading. In P. Peterson, E. Baker, & B. McGaw (Eds.), International encyclopedia of education (3rd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 464–467). Oxford, UK: Academic Press.
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2013). How does your child hear and talk? Retrieved from http://www.asha.org/public/speech/development/chart.htm
Andrews, S., & Lo, S. (2013, April). Is morphological priming stronger for transparent than opaque words? It depends on individual differences in spelling and vocabulary. Journal of Memory and Language, 68(3), 279–296.
Argus, L. (2012, January). Shake it up with reading. Science Scope, 35(5), 51.
Armbruster, B. (1996). Schema theory and the design of content-area textbooks. Educational Psychologist, 21, 253–276.
August, D., & Shanahan, T. (2006). Developing literacy in second-language learners: Report of the national literacy panel on language minority children and youth. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Aylward, E., Richards, T., Berninger, V., Nagy, W., Field, K., Grimme, A., Richards, A., Thomson, J., & Cramer, S. C. (2003, June). Instructional treatment associated with changes in brain activation in children with dyslexia. Paper presented at the conference of the Organization for Human Brain Mapping, New York, NY.
Bach, S., Brandeis, D., Hofstetter, C., Martin, E., Richardson, U., & Brem, S. (2010, November). Early emergence of deviant frontal fMRI activity for phonological processes in poor beginning readers. NeuroImage, 53, 682–693.
Baer, G. T., & Nourie, B. L. (1993). Strategies for teaching reading in the content areas. The Clearing House, 67, 121–122.
Bailet, L. L., Repper, K., Murphy, S., Piasta, S., & Zettler-Greeley, C. (2011). Emergent literacy intervention for prekindergarteners at risk for reading failure: Years 2 and 3 of a multiyear study. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 46(2) 133–153.
Baillieux, H., Vandervliet, E. J. M., Manto, M., Parizel, P. M., De Deyn, P. P., & Mariën, P. (2009, February). Developmental dyslexia and widespread activation across the cerebellar hemispheres. Brain and Language, 108(2), 122–132.
Barton-Arwood, S. M., & Little, M. A. (2013). Using graphic organizers to access the general curriculum at the secondary level. Intervention in School and Clinic, 49(1), 6–13.
Beach, K. D., & O’Connor, R. E. (2013, July 12). Early response-to-intervention measures and criteria as predictors of reading disability in the beginning of third grade. Journal of Learning Disabilities [Published online ahead of print], 1–28. doi:10.1177/0022219413495451
Bear, D., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S., & Johnston, F. (2008). Words their way: Word study for phonics, vocabulary, and spelling instruction (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Beauchamp, M. S., Lee, K. E., Argall, B. D., & Martin, A. (2004). Integration of auditory and visual information about objects in superior temporal sulcus. Neuron, 41(5), 809–823.
Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., Hamilton, R. L., & Kugan, L. (1997). Questioning the author: An approach for enhancing student engagement with text. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Bender, W. N., & Larkin, M. J. (2003). Reading strategies for elementary students with learning difficulties. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Benítez-Burraco, A. (2010). Neurobiology and neurogenetics of dyslexia. Neurología [English edition], 25(9), 563–581.
Berninger, V. W., Nielsen, K. H., Abbott, R. D., Wijsman, E., & Raskind, W. (2008, April). Gender differences in severity of writing and reading disabilities. Journal of School Psychology, 46(2), 151–172.
Bhatt, R. S., Hayden, A., Reed, A., Bertin, E., & Joseph, J. (2006). Infants’ perception of information along object boundaries: Concavities versus convexities. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 94(2), 91–113.
Bialystok, E., McBride-Chang, C., & Luk, G. (2005, November). Bilingualism, language proficiency, and learning to read in two writing systems. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(4), 580–590.
Biemiller, A. J., & Boote, C. (2006). An effective method of building meaning vocabulary in primary grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(1), 44–62.
Birsh, J. R. (2005). Multisensory teaching of basic language skills (2nd ed.). Towson, MD: Brookes.
Bischoff-Grethe, A., Proper, S. M., Mao, H., Daniels, K. A., & Berns, G. S. (2000). Conscious and unconscious processing of nonverbal pr
edictability in Wernicke’s area. Journal of Neuroscience, 20, 1975–1981.
Bloch, C., Kaiser, A., Kuenzli, E., Zappatore, D., Haller, S., Franceschini, R., Luedi, G., Radue, E.-E., & Nitsch, C. (2009). The age of second language acquisition determines the variability in activation elicited by narration in three languages in Broca’s and Wernicke’s area. Neuropsychologia, 47(3), 625–633.
Bolton, F., & Snowball, D. (1993). Ideas for spelling. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Borman, G. D., & Benson, J. (2006). Can brain research and computers improve literacy? A randomized field trial of the Fast ForWord® Language computer-based training program (WCER working paper no. 2006–5). Madison: University of Wisconsin–Madison, Wisconsin Center for Education Research.
Bowers, P. N., Kirby, J. R., & Deacon, S. H. (2010, May). The effect of morphological instruction on literacy skills: A systematic review of the literature. Review of Educational Research, 80(2), 114–179.
Brady, S., & Moats, L. (1997). Informed instruction for reading success: Foundations for teacher preparation. Baltimore, MD: International Dyslexia Association.
Brasseur-Hock, I. F., Hock, M. F., Kieffer, M. J., Biancarosa, G., & Deshler, D. D. (2011, August). Adolescent struggling readers in urban schools: Results of a Latent Class Analysis. Learning and Individual Differences, 21(4), 438–452.
Brown, W. E., Eliez, S., Menon, V., Rumsey, J. M., White, C. D., & Reiss, A. L. (2001). Preliminary evidence of widespread morphological variations of the brain in dyslexia. Neurology, 27, 781–783.
Bruhn, A. L., & Hasselbring, T. S. (2013). Increasing student access to content area textbooks. Intervention in School and Clinic, 49(1), 30–38.
Brunswick, N., Martin, G. N., & Rippon, G. (2012, February). Early cognitive profiles of emergent readers: A longitudinal study. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 111(2), 268–285.
Burke, M. D., Hagan-Burke, S., Kwok, O., & Parker, R. (2009, February). Predictive validity of early literacy indicators from the middle of kindergarten to second grade. Journal of Special Education, 42(4), 209–226.
Burman, D. D., Bitan, T., & Booth, J. R. (2008). Sex differences in neural processing of language among children. Neuropsychologia, 46(5), 1349–1362.
How the Brain Learns to Read Page 30