they drove oxygen into the dough Oxidation causes a breakdown of lipids in flour, which includes vitamin E. The oxidation of carotenoids also compromises beta-carotene and other antioxidants.
Ascorbic acid Raymond Calvel, The Taste of Bread (Aspen Publishers, 2001). See the section “Excessive Oxidation and Its Consequences,” pp. 30–37.
bread consumption declined Edward Behr, “Paris (or What Is French Food?); Part I, Posing the Question and The Classic Parisian Baguette,” The Art of Eating 45 (Winter 1998), p. 10.
one quarter of the nation Eleanor Beardsley, “Outsourced Croissants Outrage Traditional French Bakers,” National Public Radio, August 7, 2012.
This process was crucial There is evidence that wild yeasts contribute to endogenous fermentation, though the point has been debated. Others suggest that the primary yeast species in wine fermentation are domesticated species added by vintners. See LeGras et al., “Bread, Beer and Wine: Saccharomyces Cerevisiae Diversity Reflects Human History,” Molecular Ecology 17 (2007).
Pichard motioned The hydration of this dough ranges from 78 to 82 percent, though Pichard stressed that it depends on the flour.
before baker’s yeast The fresh baker’s yeast is generally 0.2 to 0.4 percent of the flour weight.
On the surface of the dough Pichard revealed another aspect of his method, which was crucial to understanding why it worked. The white flour did not have any additives, not even enzymatic malt. Since flour alone contains less than 1 percent fermentable sugar, the enzymatic agent found in barley malt is often necessary to help the fermentation process along. Most white flours contain these added enzymes. So why then does Pichard avoid malted flour? Because in the “endogenous” fermentation, what few enzymes are present in the flour have plenty of time to work. If the dough hasn’t fermented sufficiently, Pichard just lets it sit longer. If the flour contained malt, the result would be an excess of enzymatic activity over that period, meaning that too much starch would convert to sugar, causing the loaf to break down into a gummy mass. This is precisely what happened when I tried Pichard’s technique at home, because my flour contained malt. I let the flour and water sit at room temperature for a full day, but when I added yeast and made the dough, it never properly developed and the baguette was gummy inside. The prognosis? The enzymes in the malt had broken down too much starch in the “endogenous” fermentation. If I was going to try his method again, it would have to be with unmalted flour.
Compared with table salt One gram of coarse sea salt contains 350 to 375 milligrams of sodium chloride, compared with 400 milligrams in kosher salt.
Tim immediately liked the idea Tim Carman, “Can Local Baguette Makers Compete With an Ace Home Baker? Our Debut Competition Raises Bread Discourse to a New Level,” Washington City Paper, May 8, 2009. Available at www.washingtoncitypaper.com/articles/37173/can-local-baguette-makers-compete-with-an-ace-home-baker.
Chapter 2: Culturing Wild Leaven in My Kitchen
More than one billion bacteria Interview with Michael Gänzle, April 2, 2013.
a minute amount of wild yeast Jill A. Snowdon et al., “Microorganisms in Honey,” International Journal of Food Microbiology 31.1 (1996): 1–26. See also Peter B. Olaitan et al., “Honey: A Reservoir for Microorganisms and an Inhibitory Agent for Microbes,” African Health Sciences 7.3 (2007).
arabinoxylan Marco Gobbetti and Michael Gänzle, eds., Handbook on Sourdough Biotechnology (Springer, 2013), chap. 9, p. 235. See also Paula Figoni, How Baking Works: Exploring the Fundamentals of Baking Science (Wiley, 2007), p. 70.
millet made the best sourdough I actually tried to make the millet starter Pliny describes, but after two days of fermentation I saw little activity, so when I fed it a second time, I added malted barley. Not much happened, so on the third day, I added rye, honey, and millet. I continued this feeding regime until the sixth day, when I switched to rye entirely. After two weeks, it was very powerful and had a slightly sweet smell from the honey and it worked as well as my other starters that were then on vacation in my refrigerator, but it would be inaccurate to say it was a millet starter. Given its prevalence in archeological sites, I’m likely to give millet starter another try.
millet wine has been found Patrick E. McGovern, Uncorking the Past: The Quest for Wine, Beer, and Other Alcoholic Beverages (University of California Press, 2009), Kindle edition, Kindle location 1073.
One recently investigated vector Irene Stefanini et al., “Role of Social Wasps in Saccharomyces cerevisiae Ecology and Evolution,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109.33 (2012): 13398–403.
ripe grapes with punctured Robert Mortimer and Mario Polsinelli, “On the Origins of Wine Yeast,” Research in Microbiology 150.3 (1999): 199–204.
called the aleurone The aleurone contains the only living cells of the grain and is the most nutrient-dense element, with more protein, vitamins, minerals, and fiber than any other part of the seed. Its antioxidants are such a powerful preservative for the seed kernel that they have been studied to extend the shelf life of food products; its phytosterols have been shown to lower cholesterol, reduce blood pressure, and offer a host of other health benefits. But it is removed in the milling of white flour.
Saliva, which contains ptyalin Ptyalin is also a powerful piece of evidence against the oft-stated “Paleo diet” thesis which says that humans have not adapted to eating cereal grains. We have, when it comes to starch digestion. Populations that historically ate a high amount of starchy foods, such as grains and cereals, show a predominance of genes that favor the production of amylase enzymes in the saliva and thus starch digestion. See George H. Perry et al., “Diet and the Evolution of Human Amylase Gene Copy Number Variation,” Nature Genetics 39.10 (2007): 1256–60.
the yeast begin a process Emily Buehler, Bread Science: The Chemistry and Craft of Making Bread (Two Blue Books, 2006), pp. 34–38.
651 variants Jean Luc Legras et al., “Bread, Beer and Wine: Saccharomyces cerevisiae Diversity Reflects Human History,” Molecular Ecology 16.10 (2007): 2091–102.
Yeasts—a fungi—are actually ubiquitous Interview with Chris Hittenger, assistant professor, University of Wisconsin, December 17, 2012.
At least 23 yeast species: C. Meroth et al., “Monitoring the Bacterial Population Dynamics in Sourdough Fermentation Processes by Using PCR-Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology 69(1) (Jan. 2003): 475–82.
But if wine came before Interview with Sol Katz, August 3, 2011. Katz caused a stir on the microbrew circuit in the 1990s by helping concoct a contemporary version of Mesopotamian beer, based on the translation of a poem from 1800 b.c.
Rice and honey mead McGovern, Uncorking the Past, Kindle locations 1572–73, for China. The Göbekli Tepe site in Turkey, from 11,600 years ago, appears to have evidence of beer making as well. Oliver Dietrich et al., “The Role of Cult and Feasting in the Emergence of Neolithic Communities: New Evidence from Göbekli Tepe, South-eastern Turkey,” Antiquity 86.333 (2012): 674–95.
Debra Wink, a home baker Wink’s instructions on this method were provided in a two-part post on TheFreshLoaf.com.
Scientists are just starting to tease out Marcia Shu-Wei Su et al., “Intestinal Origin of Sourdough Lactobacillus reuteri Isolates as Revealed by Phylogenetic, Genetic, and Physiological Analysis,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology 78.18 (2012): 6777–80.
But lactobacilli are far more prevalent Jens Walter, “Ecological Role of Lactobacilli in the Gastrointestinal Tract: Implications for Fundamental and Biomedical Research,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology 74.16 (2008): 4985–96.
Or they might arise: Gobbetti and Gänzle, eds., Handbook on Sourdough Biotechnology, chap. 5.
Insects may also play a key role Willem H. Groenewald et al., “Identification of Lactic Acid Bacteria from Vinegar Flies Based on Phenotypic and Genotypic Characteristics,” American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 57.4 (2006): 519–25.
; fruit flies lay their eggs McGovern, Uncorking the Past, Kindle locations 277–79.
acid-tolerant bacteria Fabio Minervini et al., “Lactic Acid Bacterium and Yeast Microbiotas of 19 Sourdoughs Used for Traditional/Typical Italian Breads: Interactions Between Ingredients and Microbial Species Diversity,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology 78.4 (2012): 1251–64.
German Detmolder rye sourdough See Jeffrey Hamelman, Bread: A Baker’s Book of Techniques and Recipes (Wiley, 2012), p. 200.
That is why scientists have found I. Scheirlinck et al., “Molecular Source Tracking of Predominant Lactic Acid Bacteria in Traditional Belgian Sourdoughs and Their Production Environments,” Journal of Applied Microbiology 106(4) (Apr. 2009): 1081–92.
So far, more than fifty-five species Gobbetti and Gänzle, eds., Handbook on Sourdough Biotechnology, chap. 5, p. 114.
nineteen Italian sourdough cultures Minervini et al., “Lactic Acid Bacterium and Yeast Microbiotas of 19 Sourdoughs.”
cultures can even change Fabio Minervini et al., “Influence of Artisan Bakery- or Laboratory-Propagated Sourdoughs on the Diversity of Lactic Acid Bacterium and Yeast Microbiotas,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology 78.15 (2012): 5328–40.
It has higher levels of sugar E. J. Pyler and L. A. Gorton, Baking Science and Technology, 4th ed. (Sosland Publishing Co., 2008), p. 169.
Chapter 3: California and the Country Loaf
American artisan bakers generally seek out French flours tend to have lower levels of protein, but they perform similarly to American artisan bread flours with one main difference: they require less water. As a general rule of thumb, you can reduce the water by 4 percentage points for French flours versus American all-purpose flours. So if a recipe calls for 700 grams of water for 1 kilo of flour, I’d start by adding 660 grams of water to the French flour to see how it performs.
Robertson appeared on the cover Daniel Wing and Alan Scott, The Bread Builders (Chelsea Green, 1999).
Nathan Yanko, a distance runner Yanko has since moved on, opening the bakery M.H. Bread & Butter in San Anselmo, north of San Francisco.
Chapter 4: Re-creating a Diverse Grain Pantry
In the refrigerator, I store Refrigeration isn’t necessary if you’re going to use the flour within a few months, but heat and humidity can lead to spoilage. Even if the flour continues to perform well over several months, when stored at room temperature, its nutritional properties gradually degrade as a result of oxidation. Refrigeration slows this process. See Andres F. Doblado-Maldonado et al., “Key Issues and Challenges in Whole Wheat Flour Milling and Storage,” Journal of Cereal Science 56.2 (2012): 119–26.
primary source of food Aaron Bobrow-Strain, White Bread: A Social History of the Store-Bought Loaf (Beacon, 2012), p. 4.
a New World starch, the potato Charles C. Mann, 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created (Alfred A. Knopf, 2011), p. 208.
Portuguese broa de milho: See a description of this bread on the blog “Azelia’s Kitchen,” www.azeliaskitchen.net/broa-northern-portu gal/.
famines occurred See Mann, 1493, p. 209. Also see Bernard Dupaigne, The History of Bread (Harry N. Abrams, 1999), p. 38.
in Russia, four million to seven million Richard Manning, Against the Grain: How Agriculture Has Hijacked Civilization (Macmillan, 2004), p. 69.
the grain was spelt Patrick Faas, Around the Roman Table: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome (University of Chicago Press, 2005), p. 176.
the origin of marble rye Stanley Ginsberg and Norman Berg, Inside the Jewish Bakery (Camino Books, 2011), p. 57.
Hippocrates Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, Book 18, chaps. 15, 26.
barley sustained soldiers Ibid., Book 18, chap. 14. See also health benefits of barley at the Whole Grains Council: http://wholegrain scouncil.org/whole-grains-101/health-benefits-of-barley.
a prison riot Kaplan, Bakers of Paris and the Bread Question, pp. 34–36.
With every 100 grams of wheat bran See tables for “crude wheat bran” and “white wheat flour” in USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 26. Bran represents around 12 to 17 percent of the kernel.
Bakers could now rely The full and fascinating story of white bread can be found in Bobrow-Strain, White Bread.
Grasslands cover The 40 percent figure excludes Greenland and Antarctica. See J. M. Suttie, S. J. Reynolds, and C. Batello, eds., Grasslands of the World, Plant Production and Protection Series No. 34 (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2005).
Wild wheat and barley Michael Balter, “Seeking Agriculture’s Ancient Roots,” Science 316.5833 (2007): 1830–35.
The oldest evidence J. Mercader, “Mozambican Grass Seed Consumption During the Middle Stone Age,” Science 326.1680 (2009).
This mutant trait George Willcox, “The Roots of Cultivation in Southwestern Asia,” Science 341.6141 (2013): 39–40. See figure 3.
evolved before hulled spelt For a discussion of spelt’s separate evolution from free-threshing wheat, see Francesco Salamini et al., “Genetics and Geography of Wild Cereal Domestication in the Near East,” Nature Reviews Genetics 3.6 (2002): 429–41.
This is apparent in the domestication of wheat George Willcox’s Web site has an illuminating map of these remains. See http://g.willcox.pag esperso-orange.fr.
Domestication accelerated only: Balter, “Seeking Agriculture’s Ancient Roots.”
This process occurred at multiple locations Willcox, “Roots of Cultivation in Southwestern Asia.”
11,000-year-old Syrian site George Willcox and Danielle Stordeur, “Large-Scale Cereal Processing Before Domestication During the Tenth Millennium Cal BC in Northern Syria,” Antiquity 86.331 (2012): 99–114. The site is now covered by the waters of the Tishrine dam.
As Klaus Schmidt, the archeologist Charles C. Mann, “The Birth of Religion,” National Geographic, June 2011. See also Ken-ichi Tanno and George Willcox, “How Fast Was Wild Wheat Domesticated?,” Science 311.5769 (2006): 1886.
Along with einkorn, emmer Daniel Zohary and Maria Hopf, Domestication of Plants in the Old World, 3rd ed. (Oxford University Press, 2000). Zohary and Hopf discuss the origins of all the founder grains.
95 percent of all wheat CIMMYT, “Global Strategy for the Ex Situ Conservation with Enhanced Access to Wheat, Rye and Triticale Genetic Resources,” September 2007.
crossbred with other nonspelt T. Schober et al., “Gluten Proteins from Spelt (Triticum Aestivum Ssp. Spelta) Cultivars: A Rheological and Size-Exclusion High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Study,” Journal of Cereal Science 44.2 (2006): 161–73.
if a major portion of the wheat crop John H. Perkins, Geopolitics and the Green Revolution: Wheat, Genes, and the Cold War (Oxford University Press, 1997), p. v.
Chapter 5: Turkey Red: Heritage Grains and the Roots of the Breadbasket
Rewind to 1912 E. G. Heyne, “Earl G. Clark, Kansas Farmer and Wheat Breeder,” Kansas Academy of Sciences 59.4 (Winter 1956).
a field of Turkey Red wheat While often described as Ukrainian in origin, the seed originated in Crimea and did not reach Ukraine until 1860. A Mennonite immigrant to the United States, Bernard Warkentin, reportedly imported 25,000 bushels of the seed and planted them in several hundred test plots near his home. Alan L. Olmstead and Paul W. Rhode, “The Red Queen and the Hard Reds: Productivity Growth in American Wheat, 1800–1940,” The Journal of Economic History 62.04 (2002): 929–66. See also Report of the Kansas State Board of Agriculture 39.15566: 218.
farmers settling the Great Plains William Cronin, Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (W. W. Norton, 1991). See chap. 3 for a brilliant history of grain trade during this era.
He and his wife, Jane Alan L. Olmstead and Paul W. Rhode, Creating Abundance: Biological Innovation and American Agricultural Development (Cambridge University Press, 2008), pp. 26–27.
when Turkey Red was near its peak Ibid., chap. 2.
high-extraction flour is c
ommon in Europe In Europe, there are grades of flour that denote how much mineral content they contain, which is a proxy for bran (for minerals reside in the bran) and also the extraction rate. To figure the mineral content, a sample of flour is incinerated. The remaining ash, made up of minerals, is then measured. In France, these flours can be found as type 80 (0.80 percent ash, corresponding to an 82 to 85 percent extraction rate) or type 110 (1.1 percent ash, or roughly 85 to 90 percent extraction). In Germany, a flour classified as type 1150 (1.15 percent ash, or a roughly 90 percent extraction) is also between white and whole wheat flour. In the United States, whole wheat flour may be roller milled; that is, separated and then mixed back together to approximate the ratio in the original kernel. Using stone ground flour will likely ensure that you’re getting the entire kernel—that is, a 100 percent extraction—in a milled product, rather than one that is reconstituted. To get close to bolted wheat, you can mix two-thirds white flour with one-third whole wheat flour.
A wake-up call Melinda Smale et al., “Dimensions of Diversity in CIMMYT Bread Wheat from 1965 to 2000” (CIMMYT, 2001).
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