In India, too, cultural traditions continue to recall the ancient trade routes. For instance, in the state of Orissa, the festival of Kartik Purnima still celebrates the day when Sadhaba merchants set sail for South-East Asia. People light lamps before sunrise and set them afloat on small paper boats in rivers or in the sea. The festival is held in early November when the monsoon winds reverse. At the same time, in the town of Cuttack, a large fair takes place—called ‘Bali-Yatra’ (literally meaning ‘the voyage to Bali’), scholars feel it marks the departure of merchant fleets for the island of Bali.10 These festivals echo a culture that celebrated its entrepreneurs and risk-takers.
Further south, the seventh-century stone temple of Mahabalipuram still stands on the shore as if waiting for merchant fleets to come home. The town, 60 km south of modern Chennai, was a thriving port under the Pallava dynasty from the seventh to the ninth century AD. According to local legend, the existing temple complex was only one of seven such temple complexes that once existed. It was said that the sea swallowed up the other six temples as well as numerous palaces, bazaars and other grand buildings. Local fishermen had tales of how their nets would often get tangled in underwater structures. Serious historians, however, used to dismiss these stories as mere myth.
On 26 December 2006, a massive earthquake devastated the Indonesian province of Aceh and triggered a tsunami across the Indian Ocean. The event is estimated to have killed 230,000 people. The tsunami struck India’s south-eastern coast as well. However, before the waves crashed in, the sea withdrew a couple of kilometres. The residents of Mahabalipuram reported seeing a number of large stone structures rising from the seabed. Then the sea returned and covered them up again. Since then, divers have confirmed that there are a large number of man-made structures out in the sea although they have not yet been systematically mapped. The tsunami also shifted the sands along the shore and uncovered a number of other structures, including a large stone lion.11 Archaeologists also found the foundations of a brick temple from the Sangam period that may have been destroyed by a tsunami 2200 years ago. A second tsunami may have hit this coast in the thirteenth century. Yet again, folk memory has been proved to have been based on historical fact even if one cannot exactly confirm if there indeed were another six temples in Mahabalipuram.
SAILING ON STITCHED SHIPS
As we have seen, the boom in maritime trade made India both an economic and a cultural superpower. According to Angus Maddison, the country accounted for 33 per cent of world GDP in the first century AD. India’s share was three times that of western Europe and was much larger than that of the Roman empire as a whole (21 per cent). China’s share of 26 per cent of world GDP was significantly smaller than India’s12. He also estimates India’s population at 75 million (compared to today’s 1.2 billion).
What did the merchant fleets plying the Indian Ocean look like in this era? There were a wide variety of vessels, ranging from small boats for river and coastal use to large ships with double masts for long sea voyages. There were also regional variations. As shown in the panels of Borobodur, the Indonesians preferred a design with outriggers. However, they all seem to have shared a peculiar design trait: they were not held together by nails; they were stitched together with rope! Throughout the ages, travellers from outside the Indian Ocean world have repeatedly commented on this odd design preference. The technique persisted into modern times—locally built vessels were being stitched together well into the twentieth century. A survey of the Orissa coast by Eric Kentley in the 1980s found that boats called ‘padua’ were still being made by sewing together planks with coir ropes.13 I am told that there are boat-builders who continue using this approach into the twenty-first century. Like the Harappan ox-cart, it is another example of how ancient technologies live on in India even as it adopts new ones.
It is unclear why the shipbuilders in the Indian Ocean region had such a strong preference for this peculiar technique when they had access to iron nails from an early stage. It has been suggested that it may have been the result of a superstition that magnetic lodestones in the sea would suck in ships with iron-nails, but this is a very unlikely explanation. More likely, it was a response to the fact that these ships sailed in waters full of atolls and reefs, and had to be beached in many places due to the lack of sheltered harbours or due to the rough monsoon sea. All this required a hull that was a bit flexible and would not break-up easily. The stitched technique provided this flexibility although it would later limit the ability of Indian ship-building to match Chinese and then European design innovations.
So, how did it feel to sail in these ships? A Chinese scholar Fa Xian (also spelled Fa Hien) visited India in the fifth century and has left us a fascinating account of his return journey by the sea route.14 Fa Xian came to India by the land route through Central Asia. He spent several years in northern India studying and gathering Buddhist texts. He then made his way to the port of Tamralipti. The site of this famous port of antiquity, now called Tamluk, is not far from modern Kolkata. It is close to where the Rupnarayan river joins the Gangetic delta, but the old channel that served the port has silted up and is no longer navigable. Except for a 1200-year-old temple dedicated to the goddess Kali, there is little there to hint at a glorious past as a successful hub of commerce. Indeed, Tamluk is close to the infamous village of Nandigram where a dispute over land acquisition in 2007 led to a bloody clash between the state government and locals that left scores dead. It is now considered a hotbed of Maoist rebels.
In 410 AD, however, Fa Xian would have found a port town bustling with activity. He tells us that he boarded a large merchant ship bound for Sri Lanka. The voyage was during the winter months when the monsoons winds would have been blowing south. The ship sailed in a south-westerly direction for just fourteen days before arriving in Sri Lanka. Fa Xian calls it the Land of the Lions—a clear reference to the mythical origins of the Sinhalese people (there were never any real lions in Sri Lanka).
The Chinese scholar spent two years in Sri Lanka studying Buddhist texts before setting sail for South East Asia. He tells us that it was a large vessel that could carry two hundred people. It was accompanied by a smaller ship that carried extra provisions and could help in an emergency. Unfortunately, after two days at sea, the ships were caught in a major storm and the larger ship sprang a leak. Suddenly there was panic. Many of the merchants wanted to shift to the smaller vessel immediately, but its crew panicked when faced with a virtual stampede. They cut the cables and sailed off. This further increased the state of panic. The merchants were now forced to throw most of their goods overboard. Fa Xian tells us that he too threw away his water-pitcher, wash-basin and other possessions. He was afraid that the merchants would also throw out his precious cargo of books, but fortunately this did not happen.
Finally, after thirteen days, the storm cleared up. The crew beached the ship on a small island, possibly one of the Andaman and Nicobar islands. The leak was found and repaired before they set sail again. We are told that the mood remained tense because the area was notorious for pirates and the crew was not quite sure about their location. In the end, however, they regained their bearings and set a course for Java.
The ship arrived in Java after ninety days at sea. In common with other Chinese pilgrims who visited India to study Buddhism, Fa Xian saw the world in largely religious terms. The only thing he has to say about Java is that its people were Hindus and not Buddhists (also not entirely accurate given the evidence of Borobodur). After staying in Java for five months, he set sail for China on a very large merchant ship.
The vessel must have been enormous since the crew alone numbered 200. Fa Xian comments that he was very comfortable on this ship. It is possible that ships of this size had private cabins. For over a month, the ship made good progress till it, too, hit a major storm. Yet again, there was panic. Fa Xian tells us that some of his fellow passengers accused him of bringing bad luck. They had probably heard of the storm on his previous voyage and though
t that this was too much of a coincidence! Luckily an influential merchant defended him and the matter was settled.
Meanwhile, the ship’s crew realized that they had been blown off-course and were lost. They had been at sea for seventy days by now and were running dangerously short on food and water. Given the desperate situation, some of the more experienced merchants decided to take control of the ship and set a new course. After sailing for yet another twelve days, the ship finally arrived on the Chinese coast. Thus ends one of the earliest accounts of a sea journey between India and China. It reminds us that Indian Ocean voyages were dangerous and that these ancient merchants ran enormous risks when they set sail for foreign lands.
REBUILDING THE IMPERIAL DREAM
When Fa Xian visited India, much of the country was under the sway of the Gupta Empire, the second of India’s great empires. The first of the Gupta emperors was Chandragupta I (320–335 AD) who established control over the eastern Gangetic plain with his capital in Pataliputra (now Patna). However, it was his son Samudragupta who dramatically expanded the empire over his forty-year rule. He first ensured that he had control of the entire Gangetic plains. Then he led a campaign deep into southern India where he reduced the kings of the region, including the Pallavas, to tributary status. Having proved himself as the most powerful monarch in the subcontinent, he performed the Vedic ritual of the Ashwamedha Yagna and proclaimed himself the Chakravartin or Universal Monarch.
Samudragupta’s successor Chandragupta II (also called Vikramaditya) next expanded the empire westward to include Malwa and Gujarat by defeating the Sakas (or Scythians) who had ruled this area for several generations. Many of the small kingdoms and republics of north-west India were also reduced to tributary status. Thus, the Guptas established effective sway over much of India. In North and Central India, this control was exercised directly, while in peninsular India and in the north-west it was exercised indirectly through tributaries and close allies like the Vakatakas.
There is strong evidence to suggest that the Guptas consciously modelled themselves on the Mauryans and set out to recreate the empire of their predecessors. Not only did two of their emperors share a name with Chandragupta Maurya, but the Guptas went out of their way to put their own inscriptions next to Mauryan ones. For instance, much of what we know about the conquests of Samudragupta is from inscriptions carved on an Ashokan pillar that is now housed in Allahabad fort. Similarly, Skandagupta, fifth of the Gupta emperors, placed his own inscription in the vicinity of a Mauryan edict in Girnar, Gujarat. In art and literature too we find an echo of the Gupta fascination with the Mauryas. A well known Sanskrit play of this period, Mudrarakshasa, is based on the story of how Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya defeated the Nandas and built their empire.
Many well-known scholars take the view that ancient Indians did not have a sense of history and that the extraordinary continuities of Indian history are somehow accidental or unconscious. It is modern arrogance to think that ancient people were somehow incapable of comprehending their place in history. As we can see, the Gupta monarchs clearly wanted to establish a link not just with the Mauryans but back as far as the Bronze Age. This is why at least two of the Gupta emperors conducted the ‘Ashwamedha Yagna’ or Vedic Horse Sacrifice—a ritual that was considered ancient even in the fourth century AD. By declaring themselves as Chakravartins, the Guptas were sending the same signal as the Mauryans did through the symbol of the so-called chakra or wheel. At the same time, the Guptas wanted to create a link to the future. The rust-free Iron Pillar in Delhi is usually remembered as an example of advanced metallurgy, but it was not meant as a technological wonder. Its real purpose was to provide a permanent record for posterity. What better way to do this than to inscribe on a solid iron pillar that would never rust?15
LIFE IN A GUPTA CITY
Despite the numerous conquests, the Gupta empire was significantly smaller than that of the Mauryas. However, it made up for this in economic and cultural vigour. The two centuries of Gupta rule coincided with the mercantile boom described earlier in this chapter. With ports on both coasts and control over major internal highways, the Gupta economy witnessed a period of exceptional prosperity. This is corroborated by Fa Xian’s diaries. Indeed, the country must have been very well governed because, in his many years of solo wanderings, the Chinese scholar does not appear to have ever been robbed or cheated. This cannot be said of foreign travellers who visited India in subsequent centuries. Later visitors like Xuan Zang and Ibn Batuta would all have to face armed bandits. Even today, backpacking alone like Fa Xian can be unsafe for a foreigner in many parts of the country.
The Gupta emperors invested heavily in intellectual and artistic excellence. It was under their rule that the astronomer-mathematician Aryabhatta worked out that the earth was spherical and that it rotated on an axis. He argued that the phases of the moon were due to the movement of shadows and that the planets shone through reflected light. He even worked out a remarkably accurate estimate of the circumference of the earth and of the ratio Pi. All this a thousand years before Copernicus and Galileo.
Not far from his capital Pataliputra, Emperor Kumaragupta founded Nalanda University, which would go on to become a world-renowned hub for Buddhist studies. Further west, the Guptas established a secondary capital in Ujjain. The city not only became an important commercial node in the Southern Road but also an important centre of learning for the Hindu tradition. It was probably here that Kalidasa, often called India’s Shakespeare, composed his famous works. Ujjain is today a small town in Madhya Pradesh, undistinguished except for a number of ancient temples. In the fifth century AD, however, it was a lively hub of commercial and intellectual exchange. Late on a monsoon night, when the cool moist breeze blows, it is still possible to imagine Kalidasa composing the Meghdoota, the Messenger of the Clouds.
So what was it like to visit one of these cities? Fa Xian tells us that cities of the Gangetic plains were exceptionally large and prosperous.16 When he visited Pataliputra, he saw the ruins of Ashoka’s palace that still stood in the middle of the city after six centuries. He was so impressed by the sheer scale of the stone walls, towers and doorways that he declared that they could not have been built by human hands—they must be the work of supernatural creatures.
While in Pataliputra, he witnessed a festival where the people built gigantic four-wheel wagons and then erected towers on them that were five storeys high. They then covered the towers in fine white linen and decorated them with canopies of embroidered silk. Fa Xian tells us that the people placed idols of their gods within these structures and images of the Buddha on the corners of the wagons. On the day of the festival, twenty such wagons were pulled through the city in a grand procession. Devotees from all walks of life, ranging from the royal family to the poor, participated in the festivities. They offered prayers and flowers to the gods and lit lamps in the evening. The whole city became like a fair ground with amusements and games. We are also told that, on this day, the rich made generous donations to the poor and physicians even held free health clinics for them.
The festival described above is clearly the Rath Yatra or Chariot Festival that is still celebrated by Hindus in many parts of the country. The most famous is the one held in honour of Lord Jagannath in Puri, Orissa. From Fa Xian’s description, the festival has survived almost unchanged since Gupta times. The only significant difference is that Buddhists used to actively participate in this event. Indeed, it appears that the popular practice of Buddhism and Hinduism overlapped significantly despite doctrinal disputes between scholars, and were seen to be part of the same spectrum. This relationship remains alive in the Indic family of religions. Nepali Hindus routinely worship at Buddhist shrines just as Buddhist Thais commonly pray to the Hindu god Brahma and Punjabi Hindus visit Sikh gurudwaras.
Not everything written in this period was about high literature, science or religion. One of the most famous books of this age is the Kamasutra, the Treatise on Love. It is best known
for its long lists of complicated sexual positions, but it also tells us a lot about the social mores of that time. The book suggests that at least urban attitudes were surprisingly liberal. Although obviously written by a man, the Kamasutra is quite sensitive to the female perspective and even hints at a female readership. Most interestingly for our purposes, it paints a vivid picture of the life of a rich and idle nagaraka or ‘a man-about-town’.17
The Kamasutra advises the nagaraka to live in a big city if possible. On getting up in the morning, the book tells us, the nagaraka should have an oil-massage, bathe, shave, apply perfumes and, most importantly, clean the sweat from his armpits (the author is quite insistent on this). After lunch, he should entertain himself by teaching his parrot to talk, or by attending a cock-fight or ram-fight. Then, after a nap, it was time to dress up and head for the salon. The Kamasutra tells us that the evenings would be full of music, singing and drink. By late evening, the nagaraka and his friends would withdraw to a private room, decorated with flowers, where women could rendezvous with them. The courtesans are colourfully described as ‘women who love all men equally’. They would share wines and spirits made of grapes, honey and sugarcane. The Kamasutra advises the men to engage the women in ‘gentle conversation and courtesies that charm the mind and the heart’. Presumably the evening did not end just in conversation.
Picnics too are described in the same way. The men would get ready early in the morning and head for the countryside on horseback accompanied by friends, servants and courtesans. They would while the day away in gambling, cock-fights and theatrical performances. In the summer, the picnickers would enjoy water-sports in specially built pools designed to keep crocodiles out (very sensible in my view; it can really spoil your day to have a limb bitten off while frolicking in the pool with the ladies).
Land of seven rivers: History of India's Geography Page 11