by Hughes, Ian
Belisarius was obviously a man of strong character and outstanding moral bearing, especially when he is compared to his compatriots. The only time when he failed to maintain high moral integrity was when the Goths offered him the kingship of Italy. His desire to return to Constantinople having secured total victory resulted in him misleading the Goths into thinking that he was going to accept their proposal. In an ironic twist, it is likely that the manner of his refusal resulted in the Goths prolonging the war and Belisarius later having to spend several wasted years in Italy attempting to fight a war that he could not win.
As an overall judgement of Belisarius, therefore, it is possible to reach a simple conclusion. This was a man who was far above average in his military ability and very far above others in his moral integrity. His grasp of strategic considerations was unmatched and his reactions to events almost faultless. The fact that he lost battles due to either bad planning or by being pressured into fighting by his own men when at a disadvantage means that he cannot be placed on a par with outstanding military leaders such as Julius Caesar or Alexander the Great, but his abilities place him not far below their level. Although at times – such as in the Battle of Ad Decimum and at the siege of Naples – he can be said to have been lucky, this should not make us underestimate his abilities, since luck has always been a major factor in warfare. As Napoleon once said after listening to references for a candidate for promotion, ‘I do not doubt that he is a good general, but is he lucky?’
Appendix I
Chronology
235 Death of Severus Alexander: beginning of ‘Third Century Crisis’.
260 Valerian defeated and captured by Persians: Antioch sacked.
306-327 Reign of Constantine I (the Great).
357 Battle of Strasbourg (Argentoratum): Julian defeats Alamanni.
376 Valens allows Goths to enter Roman territory.
378 Gothic rebellion: Valens defeated and killed at Battle of Adrianople.
382 Theodosius signs treaty with Goths, who are given land in the Balkans.
395 Hunnic raids across Caucasus Mountains.
406 Rebellion of Constantine III in Britain: Vandals, Alans and Sueves cross frozen Rhine into Gaul.
409 Vandals etc cross into Spain.
410 Rome sacked by Alaric.
418 Visigoths settled in Aquitaine.
451 Attila invades Gaul: defeated by Aetius at Battle of Catalaunian Plains.
453 Death of Attila.
454 Battle of the Nedao, collapse of Hunnic Empire. Murder of Aetius by Valentinian II.
455 Assassination of Valentinian III: Sack of Rome by the Vandals.
461 Majorian attempts to reconquer Africa from the Vandals, attempt fails.
466 Euric, king of Visigoths, leads conquest of Southern Gaul and Spain.
468 Anthemius with eastern support attempts conquest of Vandal Africa, fails.
472 Orestes becomes magister militum in the west. Emperor Julius Nepos forced to withdraw to Illyricum. Orestes has own son declared Emperor as Romulus Augustulus.
474 Rule of Vandals in Africa recognised by Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Emperor Zeno.
475 Rule of Visigoths in Southern Gaul and Spain recognised by Emperor Julius Nepos in Illyricum.
476 Odovacer establishes himself as magister militum in the west. Deposes Romulus Augustulus and establishes his own rule in Italy. Traditional date for the end of the Western Roman Empire.
488 Theoderic, king of the Goths in the Balkans, ordered by the Byzantine Emperor Zeno to ‘recover’ Italy.
493 Theoderic’s siege of Odovacer in Ravenna lifted by truce: Theoderic kills Odovacer.
c.500 Birth of Procopius.
502 War begins with the Persians, after Kavadh has subjugated Armenia with the aid of the Eastern or Hepthalite Huns. The Bulgars defeat a Roman army.
503 The Persians take Theodosiopolis and Amida.
505 The magister officiorum Celer invades Persia and reaches Ctesiphon. An invasion by the Western Huns across the Caucasus brings an armistice.
506 Anastasius signs a seven-year truce with the Persians.
507 Byzantine fleet raids Italy.
508 Clovis, king of the Franks, captures the Visigothic capital Toulouse and establishes his own capital at Paris. He is made a consul by Anastasius.
517 The Slavs raid as far as Thermopylae. Defeated by Germanus.
518 Death of Anastasius. Justin elected emperor.
525 Byzantine war with Persia. The Persians move against Iberia, which is conquered despite a small army sent by Justin.
526 Death of Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths. His 8-10-year old grandson Athalaric becomes king. His mother Amalasuintha assumes guardianship. The generals Sittas and Belisarius invade Persarmenia.
527 Justin becomes ill: his nephew Justinian is elevated to co-emperor. Belisarius promoted to Dux Mesopotamiae (June/July): Procopius appointed his secretary. Death of Justin: Justinian sole emperor (August).
528 Justinian sends John son of Rufinus to conquer the Crimea with a combined land and naval expedition. Byzantines defeated by Persians in Lazica. Sittas appointed as first magister militum per Armeniam. Belisarius takes part in first recorded battle: a defeat. Al-Mundhir raids Syria. Bulgars raid Thrace.
529 Justinian suppresses a Samaritan revolt. Belisarius appointed magister militum per Onentem (April). Mundus made magister militum per Illyricum: his presence deters attacks until his death in 536.
530 At the Battle of Dara Belisarius defeats the Sasanid Persians.
531 Hilderic is deposed by his cousin Gelimer. Belisarius is defeated by the Sasanid Persians at the Battle of Callinicum. Inquest into the defeat; Belisarius is recalled and replaced by Mundus as magister militum per Orientem. Dorotheus, the magister militum per Armeniam, defeats Persians (‘the Immortal Soul’) becomes king. Sabir Huns mount extensive raid across the Caucasus. The Franks move east of the Rhine and conquer Thuringia.
532 The Nika Revolt in Constantinople. Belisarius and Mundus allegedly kill 30,000 people in the Hippodrome. Revolt ends.
533 ‘Endless Peace’ signed between Byzantines and Persians. Sardinia rebels from Vandal rule; Tzazon sent by Gelimer to restore Vandal control. Tripolitania rebels from Vandal rule. Belisarius sent to Africa to conquer the Vandal kingdom. The Battle of Ad Decimum (13 Sept): Belisarius defeats Gelimer. Gelimer is joined by his brother Tzazon after his reconquest of Sardinia. He then confronts the Byzantines for a second time, but is defeated at the Battle of Tricamerum (Dec). Tzazon is killed but Gelimer escapes. Belisarius sends troops to take control of the Balearic Isles and Straits of Gibraltar.
534 Gelimer flees to the mountains but surrenders to Belisarius at last at Mount Papua. Many Vandal troops are recruited for the Roman army. Belisarius recalled to Constantinople. Rebellion of the Moors in Africa. The Romans fortify Ceuta at the Straits of Gibraltar. The Ostrogothic king Athalaric dies of alcohol abuse. His mother Amalasuintha marries her cousin Theodahad, who succeeds Athalaric. The Franks invade Burgundy and kill the Burgundian king, Godomar. They divide large parts of Burgundy amongst themselves. Byzantines and Goths clash in Dalmatia.
535 Amalasuintha, queen of the Ostrogoths, is murdered by Theodahad, who allegedly smothers her in her bath. Justinian uses the pretext to invade Italy. His armies under Belisarius occupy Sicily and under Mundus occupy Illyricum. To secure Frankish help, Witigis cedes Provence to the Franks.
536 Stotzas rebels in Africa: Belisarius returns and defeats rebels outside Carthage. Belisarius returns to Sicily prior to war in Italy. Germanus sent to Africa, defeats Stotzas at Scala Veteres. Belisarius lands in Italy, marches north and conquers Naples. He continues north and enters Rome (9 Dec). Theodahad tries to negotiate, but the Ostrogoths depose him and elect Witigis in his place as ‘King of the Goths and Italians’. Witigis marries Matasuintha (granddaughter of Theoderic) and recalls the Gothic forces from southern Gaul (which is then occupied by the Franks).
537 The Ostrogoths under Wit
igis begin the siege of Rome (late Feb/early March). Battle of Rome and defeat of Belisarius (spring).
538 After a year, the Goths raise the siege of Rome (March). Belisarius takes control of Ariminum, which the Goths place under siege, and Milan. Arrival of reinforcements under Narses.
539 The siege of Ariminum is relieved and the Byzantine siege of Auximus begins. Witigis gains aid from the Franks, who send 10,000 Burgundians to support him. The Goths and Burgundians retake Milan. The women and children are given as slaves to the Burgundians for their help. The Goths retreat under pressure from Belisarius. Belisarius besieges Witigis in Ravenna. The Goths propose a peace treaty in which they keep the territory north of the River Po, with the rest of Italy going to the Empire. Under their king, Theudibert, the Franks invade Italy, but are forced to retreat when disease breaks out in their army. Justinian limits all production of weapons to state-owned fabricae.
540 Goths offer Belisarius kingship of Goths and Italy. After the food supply is destroyed by fire, Ravenna falls (May). Belisarius captures Witigis, together with the Ostrogothic treasure. The Ostrogoths elect Ildibadus as their new king. Belisarius leaves Italy. Witigis is paraded in Belisarius’ triumph before being given a pension and settling in the east. Witigis’ Gothic troops that are captured are enlisted into the Roman army. Ildibadus defeats the Byzantines at Tarbesium. Bulgars ravage Thrace and Macedonia. Khusrow declares war and invades Byzantine territory. He captures many cities including Antioch, which is destroyed.
541 Ildibadus is assassinated and Eraric is made king. Eraric is in turn assassinated and Totila becomes King. Totila builds a fleet and begins the attempt at Gothic recovery. Belisarius is sent to the east. Khusrow campaigns in the east and captures Petra, the Byzantine-held fortress in Lazica. Belisarius attacks Nisibis, before capturing the fortress of Sisauranon. Plague in the eastern provinces.
542 Roman assault on Verona fails. Totila successful at Faventia, then attacks Florentia. Byzantines defeated in the Battle of the Mugello. Totila occupies most of southern Italy. Khusrow again invades the East.Belisarius leads an army to face the Persians and manages to persuade them to retire – possibly out of fear of the plague. Plague reaches Constantinople and possibly reaches Italy. Justinian catches the plague: Belisarius arrested concerning accusations of planning to replace the (assumed-to-be-dead) Justinian: loses post of magister militum per Orientem.
543 Gothic naval victory. Totila occupies Naples and marches on Rome. Moorish rebellion in Africa.
544 Belisarius returned to imperial favour: made comes sacn stabuli and sent back to Italy with only a few reinforcements. Goths lay siege to Auximus. Kutrigur Huns and Bulgars ravage Balkans. Moorish insurrection (ends 548).
545 War in Italy between Totila and Belisarius. Totila attacks Rome. Byzantines relieve Auximus. A five-year truce is signed between Khusrow and Justinian. Stotzas killed in Africa at Sicca Venerea. Guntharis’ rebellion in Africa; he is killed by Artabanes.
546 Totila conquers Rome (17 Dec). Belisarius retreats from the city, which is sacked by the Ostrogoths for forty days. Justinian leaves Pannonia to the Lombards.
547 The Goths leave Rome, after which the city is again occupied by Belisarius. Totila wins battle in Campania. The Byzantines retake Ceuta from the Visigoths.
548 Totila blockades Roscianum and defeats Belisarius’ comitatus in battle. Death of Theodora wife of Justinian (June 28). Belisarius is recalled to Constantinople. The Visigothic king Theudis is assassinated by Theudegisel. Death of the Frankish king, Theudibert.
549 Byzantine-Persian War in the east. Totila lays siege to Rome. Sclaveni invade Balkans. The Visigothic king Theudegisel is assassinated and succeeded by Agila.
550 Justinian orders Germanus to Italy, after marriage to Witigis’ widow Matasuintha. En route, Germanus defeats a Slav invasion of the Balkans, but then dies of illness. The unpaid garrison of Rome surrender. Totila invades Sicily, Artabanes retakes Sicily. Bessas lays siege to Petra in Lazica.
551 Narses appointed as commander in Italy. Totila’s fleet raids Greece. Ancona blockaded by the Goths: Byzantines win naval battle off Senigallia and siege raised. Goths capture Sardinia and defeat a Byzantine expedition sent to retake the island. First embassy of the Avars reaches Constantinople.
552 Narses invades Italy: at the Battle of Taginae Totila is defeated and killed. Teias made King of the Goths. Narses besieges Cumae. Byzantine army under Liberius lands in Spain to support the Visigoth rebel Athanagild. Beginning of reconquest of south of Spain for the Empire.
553 Teias defeated and killed by Narses at the Battle of Mons Lactarius. A combined Franco-Alamannic army (under Lothar and Butilin) invades Italy and defeats Narses’ Herul allies. Byzantines take Lucca. Cumae surrenders to Byzantines.
554 Lothar defeated and dies: Narses beats Butilin at Casilinum.
555 Surrender of Gothic force at Campsa. Byzantines capture Cartagena in Spain.
556 Jews and Samaritans riot.
558 Recurrence of plague in Byzantine Empire.
559 Huns invade Balkans: Belisarius defeats Hunnic force at Melantas.
561 Byzantine-Persian peace treaty. Byzantine conquest of Italy complete.
562 Kutrigurs invade Balkans.
563 Narses defeats rebellion of Amingus the Frank and Widin the Goth in North Italy. Moorish revolt in Africa.
565 Sindual the Herul rebels in Italy: hanged by Narses. Death of Belisarius (March). Death of Justinian (November).
568 Lombards invade Italy.
Appendix II
Select Personalities
To list all of the people involved in Belisarius’ wars would take an entire book in itself. This list only includes those whose stories are deemed worthy of inclusion, and also the majority of those called John, in order to help clear any confusion by the repetition of the name.
al-Mundhir King of the Lakhmids and ally of the Persians.
Amalasuintha ‘Queen’ of the Ostrogoths, daughter of Theoderic the Great. Guardian and regent for her son Athalaric, who succeeded Theoderic. She then attempted to maintain control by allying herself with her cousin Theodahad, the next in line to the throne, but he ignored their agreement and had her imprisoned and killed.
Ammatus Brother of Gelimer, king of the Vandals. On Gelimer’s orders he killed Hilderic, whose throne Gelimer had usurped. Killed at the Battle of Ad Decimum.
Antonina Wife of Belisarius. Said by Procopius to be of very low birth, at the time of her marriage to Belisarius she already had a son, Photius, and a daughter (who married Ildiger). Antonina and Belisarius had only one daughter, Joannina. She outlived Belisarius though the date of her death is unknown.
Aratius An Armenian, brother of Narses and Isaac, with Narses defeated Belisarius in an unnamed battle in the east before defecting to the Byzantines and serving alongside Belisarius.
Arethas King of the Ghassanids and ally of the Byzantines, Arethas fought alongside Belisarius in the east before deceiving Belisarius in 541. They never met again.
Artabanes An Armenian who served Khusrow before deserting to the Romans. Due to his ability and previous rank, rose quickly within the Byzantine hierarchy. Annoyed with Justinian over his inability to marry Praeiecta, Justinian’s niece, he joined a conspiracy against Justinian. Although the plot was uncovered, Artabanes was later appointed in command of troops in Sicily and under Narses the Eunuch.
Artabazes An Armenian who surrendered Sisauranon to Belisarius before being sent to serve in Italy. Led the (failed) attempt on Verona and was later fatally wounded fighting in single combat prior to the Battle of Faventia.
Athalaric Grandson of Theoderic the Great, succeeded his grandfather in 526 aged c.8. Seemingly ignored by his mother Amalasuintha (acting as regent), he was the centre of an opposition to her policies. Despite his extreme youth, he took part in epic drinking bouts and died of alcohol abuse in 534, aged c.16.
Belisarius Born c.500; died 565.
Bessas Served alongside Belisarius in Italy, after
being sent into northern Italy, he delayed his return to join Belisarius in Rome and was nearly caught by the Goths at Narnia. Served in the defence of Rome at the Praenestine Gate. Was defeated in battle by the Goths after Belisarius’ recall and thereafter stayed in Rome. He repeatedly failed to sally when outside attempts to raise the siege of Rome were made. He allegedly made money selling food at high prices during the siege, but was forced to leave this behind when the city fell to Totila.