pre-Revolutionary ties to Louverture, 72–73
War of the South, 187–188
d’Estaing, Charles, 71
dictatorship, Louverture’s, 208–213
Diderot, Denis, 95
dimensions of war, 240
diplomatic relations
British amity treaty with Saint-Domingue, 181–183
French invasion of Jamaica, 183–185
Louverture’s restoration of the slave trade, 200
US embargo with France, 178–179
Directory (France), 156–158, 167, 205–206
discrimination, Saint-Domingue’s legislation sanctioning, 99
disease
Columbian Exchange, 48, 75
death of French troops, 135
Saint-Domingue slaves, 12
slavers’ susceptibility, 10
smallpox, 85
US War of Independence, 70–71
yellow fever, 48, 151, 240, 242, 249
Douglass, Frederick, 25
Dubois, W. E. B., 261
duels, 97
economic growth
effect of the US War of Independence, 73–74
effects of maroonage, 40
expansion of Saint-Domingue’s plantations, 14–15
post-emancipation record, 200–202
Saint-Domingue’s agro-industrial revolution, 78–79
economic model, Dessalines’s, 256
emancipation. See freedmen; manumission; universal liberty/universal emancipation
emigrés, 174–175
enfranchisement, 102
French ratification of Saint-Domingue’s abolitionism, 144–145
of blacks, 101
of freedmen, 103–104, 130–131
women’s exclusion, 157–158
Enlightenment ideals, 81, 93–94, 209
environmental damage, 84–85
Estates-General (France), 98
European slaves, 9
exclusif trade laws, 93–94, 99
executions
Isaac Sasportas, 184
Louis XVI, 130–131
of Haiti’s white population, 255
of slaves, 29
of Vodou sorcerer, 37–38
Ogé rebellion, 103
public nature of, 60–61
and slave revolt of 1791, 112–114
family
freedmen’s families as hostages, 117
mixed-race children, 46–48
obstacles to slaves having, 44–45
family, Louverture’s
arrest of, 243–244
arrival in Saint-Domingue, 13
daily life, 20–21
death of Louverture’s parents, 49–50
death of Louverture’s son, 44
disintegration of, 76
divided loyalties, 237–239
family tree, 46(fig)
fate of siblings, nephews, and children, 19, 51–52, 257–260
French control of his sons, 213–214
half-sister Geneviève, 187
Louverture purchasing and freeing, 57
Louverture’s incarceration, 245–246, 249
Louverture’s loyalty to, 143, 245, 249
Louverture’s protection during the Bréda uprising, 115
Louverture’s purchase of his surrogate mother, 105–106
parents, 4, 15–16, 49–50
regime members, 51–52
surrogate parents, 49–50
wives and children, 44, 46
fatras bâton (Louverture’s nickname), 110–111
fertility rate, 45
folklore, 20, 22, 43–44
Fon language, 4, 19–20
Fort-Liberté, 141, 154, 175, 237. See also Moïse uprising
France
abolition’s economic consequences, 191–192
concerns over potential slave revolt, 107–109
Consulate, 205
counterrevolutionary coup threat, 170–172
Directory replacing the National Convention, 156–158
disbanding the white colonial assemblies, 130–131
education of Louverture’s children, 159–161
end of Saint-Domingue’s slave trade, 134–139
exiled black soldiers, 150
fate of Louverture’s siblings, nephews, and children, 257–260
French control of Saint-Domingue’s schools, 26
Haitian African-French culture, 21
Hédouville-Louverture friction, 172–176
invasion of Jamaica, 183–185
Louverture’s continued loyalty to, 3–4
Louverture’s views on independence from, 213–215
Louverture’s identity, 263–264
Louverture’s incarceration, 1–2, 245–251
Louverture’s political presence, 171–172, 208–213
Louverture’s popularity, 260–262
negotiated peace, 129–130
profitability of slaves, 86–89
quashing Saint-Domingue’s “little white” rabble, 100
Quasi-War, 177
republican forces in Saint-Domingue, 152–154
response to the slave revolt, 116–120
Saint-Domingue’s agro-industrial revolution, 78
slave revolt of 1791, 116
slavery reform, 95
slaves’ citizenship rights under the French Directory, 158–159
Sonthonax’s deportation to, 168–170
Spanish invasion of Saint-Domingue, 132–134
trade relations with Saint-Domingue, 179–180
US trade embargo, 178–179
War of the South, 185–187
See also French Revolution; Napoléon I
France, Bourbon
end of the Bourbon monarchy, 126–127, 131
execution of Louis XVI, 130
freedmen joining the Haitian Revolution, 101
growing unrest in, 97–99
Haitian Revolution as royalist cause, 110–111, 116, 121–123, 126–127, 135–136, 138, 170–172
purchase of Louverture’s father, 10–11
rise of racism, 67–69
royal power in the colonies, 92–93
settlement of Saint-Domingue, 13–15
Seven Years’ War, 35–36
US War of Independence, 70, 73–75, 88–89
freedman, Louverture as
estate management, 72–74
manumission, 53–54, 54–56
return to Bréda plantation, 75
freedmen
André Rigaud, 182
buying and exploiting slaves, 66–67
buying and freeing mixed-race children, 47–48
colonial assembly’s response to the revolt, 116–117
coup attempt, 164
enfranchisement of, 103–104, 130–131
French slavery reforms, 96
in the police and military, 32, 38, 73
joining the Haitian Revolution, 100–102
labor restrictions on cultivators, 198–199
Louverture’s attempts to rebuild the plantation economy, 191–193, 195–198
Louverture’s personal network, 59–63
militarization of, 5
Quasi-War, 177–178
racist attitudes towards, 66–69
Saint-Domingue’s population, 56
French Revolution, 184
Biassou’s allegiance to Louis XVI, 126–127
comparison to the Haitian Revolution, 171
execution of Louis XVI, 131–132
Louverture’s promotion to general, 157
origins and onset, 97–99
Saint-Domingue embracing French ideals, 153–155
white colonial extremists’ views of, 107–109
friendships among slaves, 50
fugitive slaves. See runaway slaves
Gálvez y Madrid, Bernardo de, 75
Gaou Guinou (Louverture’s grandfather), 7–9
García, Joaquín, 133, 139, 143, 149–150, 204–205, 207
Geneviève (Louverture’s half-sister), 187
gouverneur (political and military leader), 92–96, 166
governance
Biassou’s vice-royalty, 127
Haiti, 255–256
Louverture as independent ruler, 208–213
Napoléon seizing power, 205–206
Rigaud-Louverture dispute, 182
Sonthonax’s challenge to Louverture’s political rise, 166–167
tension between Sonthonax and Louverture, 166–169
Villatte’s coup attempt, 163–165
Grégoire, Henri, 110, 161
Grimperel, Éloi-Michel, 60, 105
Guadeloupe, 78, 152, 170, 180, 182, 196, 232, 248–249
guerrilla tactics, Louverture’s use of, 132, 240
Haitian Revolution
economic consequences, 191–192
as royalist cause, 110–111, 116, 121–123, 126–127, 135–136, 138, 170–172
casualties to disease, 151
Chasseurs, 71
choosing the leaders, 110–112
Dessalines’s anti-white agenda, 255
deterring a counterrevolution, 171–172
effect on other colonies, 256–257
European involvement, 131–134
freedmen joining, 100–102
French response, 116–120
goals of, 115–116, 134–138
growing unrest in France, 98
labor restrictions on cultivators, 198
leaders vying for control of, 123–124, 140–142
“little white” rabble joining, 98–100
Louverture’s personal network, 58–63, 72–73
Louverture’s shifting ideologies, 154–156
negotiated peace, 129–130
political and social legacy, 5
regime members, 52
revolutionaries targeting the Bréda plantation, 112–116
seeds of revolt, 34–35, 92, 96
slave maroonage presaging, 39
slaves’ agency in, 106
slaves increasing confidence in their own power, 124–125
Spanish invasion of Saint-Domingue, 139–141
Hamilton, Alexander, 181
Hardÿ, Jean, 236, 239–242
Harpers Ferry, 261
d’Hébécourt, Augustin, 214
Hédouville, Gabriel de, 172–175, 179, 182, 194, 196, 208
Hippolyte (Louverture’s father), 7–11, 15–16, 49
horsemanship, Louverture’s, 33, 59–60
hot air balloons, 81
Huin, Christophe, 214
identity
Haitian African-French culture, 21
Louverture abandoning his African roots, 23–24
Louverture self-identifying as French, 247
of Bréda slaves, 51–52
race and nationalism defining, 263–264
slaves’ adaptation to the Caribbean, 15
Sonthonax and Louverture, 166
ideology
Louverture’s constant shifts, 154–156
rebel leaders’ clash over slave trade, 142–143
rebellion against the British in the Caribbean, 153–154
rebels’ support from the Church, 122–123
Rigaud-Louverture dispute, 182–183
Saint-Domingue embracing French ideals, 153–154
universal liberty, 4, 115–116, 130, 134–135, 137–138, 145, 148, 180, 202, 205
incarceration, Louverture’s, 245–251
indentured labor, 200, 256–257
independence, Haiti’s, 169–170, 181–182, 212–213, 255
industrialization, 89
infanticide, 18, 45
intellectual maroonage, 35
intendant (financial and legal officer), 92–96, 166
Jamaica, 78, 116, 135, 152–153, 179–181, 183–186, 200, 225, 233–234, 242
James, C. L. R., 2
Jean-François. See Papillon, Jean-François
Jefferson, Thomas, 5, 98
Jews, 22, 68, 184
Jim Crow laws, 257
justice system, 28–29, 40, 93
Kerversau, François de, 230
kombit (call-and-response chant), 80
Kreyòl language, 4, 19, 138, 166
labor
indentured, 200, 256–257
labor abuse, 91–92, 95–96, 107
Louverture’s attempts to rebuild the plantation economy, 191–193, 195–198
regulation of, 196–200
shortage of, 256–257
See also cultivator system; slaves
labor code, 242
labor reforms, 115
landholdings, Louverture’s, 193–195
language, 4
Fon, 4, 19–20
French as status symbol, 159
Kreyòl, 4, 19, 138, 166
Louverture’s childhood, 19
Slave Coast, 7–8
slaves’ adaptation to the Caribbean, 15
Laveaux, Etienne, 147–148, 154–157, 163–167, 170–171, 176
Leclerc, Victoire, 232–233, 235–243, 248–249, 254
Lejeune, Nicolas, 91, 93
literacy, Louverture’s, 125–126, 159, 247
“little blacks,” 74
“little whites,” 67–68, 97, 99–100
Lleonart, Juan, 143
Louisiana Purchase, 261
Louverture, Cécile (wife), 44–46, 57, 63, 75–76
Louverture, Gabriel (son), 46, 57, 76, 159
Louverture, Isaac (son), 7, 33, 84, 159–161, 187, 213, 232–233, 235, 237–238, 240, 242–243, 258–259
Louverture, Jean-Pierre (son), 52
Louverture, Marie-Marthe (daughter), 46–48, 57, 69, 76, 159
Louverture, Paul (brother), 19, 83, 206, 235, 237, 240, 249
Louverture, Placide (son), 159–161, 206, 213–214, 232–233, 237–238, 245–246, 248, 257–259
Louverture, Saint-Jean (son), 84, 115, 159–160, 240, 242, 258
Louverture, Suzanne (wife), 44, 52, 83–85, 115, 136, 159–160, 245–246, 258
Louverture, Toussaint (grandson), 47
Louverture, Toussaint Jr., 43–45, 57, 76
Maitland, Thomas, 174–175, 181
Makandal (sorcerer), 37–38, 60, 103
malaria, 48
manumission, 54, 62, 99, 107. See also freedmen
Marie-Josèphe (Louverture’s goddaughter), 53–54
maroons. See runaway slaves
marriage
Bréda’s advantageous connection, 14–15
demise of Louverture’s, 75–76
Louverture’s second wife and family, 83–85
mixed-race, 54, 168, 180
obstacles to slaves marrying, 44–45
of Jean-François Papillon, 140
restrictions on cultivators, 198
separation of slave families, 13
See also miscegenation
Martin, Claude, 52
Martinique, 11, 35, 78, 108–109, 152–153, 161
master-slave dialectic, 1
Maurepas, Jacques, 237, 240
military
black soldiers’ rebellion, 189–191
Bréda plantation housing French and Spanish soldiers, 75
exiled black soldiers, 150
incarceration of Governor Laveaux, 163–164
labor regulation enforcement, 196–198
Louverture learning the art of soldiering, 124–126
Louverture’s promotions, 157
Louverture’s sacking by Napoléon, 230–231
Louverture’s service to the French army, 148–150
Louverture’s tactical limitations, 240
Napoléon’s attack on Saint-Domingue, 231–233
Napoléon’s removal of black officers from France’s, 248–249
racism in Saint-Domingue’s militias, 67–68
resistance to the Anglo-French alliance, 234–235
Saint-Domingue’s “little white” rabble, 100
Sa
int-Domingue’s reliance on France’s, 92–93
segregation in the French Army, 73
Sonthonax’s promotion of Laveaux, 166–167
US War of Independence, 70–71
military rule, Haiti’s, 255–256
miscegenation, 68–69, 99, 136, 178, 180
missionary work, 21–22, 50
mistresses, Louverture’s, 47
mixed-race individuals
children, 53–54
coup attempt, 163–164
financial success defining race, 67–68
French military leadership, 157–158
nomenclature and status, 56
Rigaud-Louverture ideological dispute, 183
rise of racism, 67–69
War of the South, 185–186
Moïse (Louverture’s nephew), 164, 173, 175, 204, 206–207, 225–227
Moïse uprising, 226–227, 233–234, 236
Morant Bay Rebellion (1865), 257
mulattoes, 68
Napoléon I
abdication of, 258
attack on Saint-Domingue, 231–243
attempted overthrow of Louverture, 1–2, 254
Joséphine’s friendship with Louverture, 161
Louverture’ seizing political power, 209–210
Louverture’s arrest and incarceration, 1–2, 243–244, 246–248, 250
policy path for Saint-Domingue, 229–231
promotion through the ranks, 157
seizing power, 205–206
taking Louverture’s sons hostage, 213–215
National Convention (France), 156–158
nationalism, 263
natural disasters, 74, 85
naval blockade, 73–74
navy
Bréda Jr.’s naval career, 27
British attempts to destroy French ports, 150–151
French navy in Cap, 75
Napoléon’s attack on Saint-Domingue, 233, 235–237
Quasi-War, 177–178
Saint-Domingue’s profitability to France, 88
War of the South, 186–187
negotiated peace, 119–120, 129–130, 237–238, 241–242
Noé, Count of, 28, 98
Ogé, Vincent, 101–103, 111
Ogé rebellion, 101–103
Olivier, Vincent, 62, 72
Ouanaminthe, one-day civil war in, 124
Papillon, Jean-François
attitude toward violence, 115–116
leadership of the revolution, 111, 141–143
Louverture’s service to the French army, 149–150
massacre of white colonists, 143
negotiated peace, 118–119, 129–130
Ouanaminthe civil war, 124
rebels’ support from the Church, 122–124
refusing universal liberty, 135–137
Spanish invasion of Saint-Domingue, 133–134, 139–141
Spanish support for the revolution, 125
Paris, Treaty of, 76
passive resistance, 94
Pauline (Louverture’s mother), 15–16, 19–20, 49
Toussaint Louverture Page 40