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46. T. Zhao, K. Axelsson, P. Krokene, and A.K. Borg-Karlson, “Fungal Symbionts of the Spruce Bark Beetle Synthesize the Beetle Aggregation Pheromone 2-Methyl-3-buten-2-ol,” Journal of Chemical Ecology 41(9) (September 2015): 848–52, link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10886-015-0617-3, accessed January 30, 2016.
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51. Marco Archetti, “The Origin of Autumn Colours by Coevolution,” Journal of Theoretical Biology 205(4) (August 21, 2000): 625–30, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10931756, accessed January 30, 2016.
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INDEX
acacia trees, 7
acorns, 19, 27, 28, 113, 150, 187, 190
Adirondack and Catskill parks, 233
age, indications of: crown, 65; mossy growth, 64; process of aging, 65; and root system, 81; wrinkles in bark, 62, 63
agriculture, modern, 11
air, forest, 221, 223, 225
alders, 78, 111, 143
algae, 95, 225
Alps, 103, 189
Amazonian rain forest, 107
ancient woodlands designation, 233
animals: distinction from plants, 83; rights of, 241. See also herbivores; insects; pests
annosus root rot, 158
anthocyanin, 229
ants: and aphids, 116, 119; habitation in wood, 129; for pest control, 118; red wood, 219
aphids, 115, 116, 119
Arctic shrubby birch, 80
ash dieback fungus, 216
ash trees, 144, 187, 216
Asian long-horned beetle, 216
aspen, quaking, 181, 183. See also pioneer tree species
Australia, 233
balanced systems, 93
bald cypress, 144
balsam, Himalayan, 218
Baluška, František, 83
bark: birch, 182; buds in, 149; and deer, 123; diseases of, 64; function of, 61; fungi entry through, 66; moisture retention in rough, 167; oak, 72; and pests, 115, 116; shedding of, 61; wrinkles in, 62, 63
bark beetles, 54, 119, 132, 157, 236
bats, 128
Bavarian National Forest, 237
bears: grizzly, 136; spirit, 234
beaver, 111
beech: bark of, 62, 63; climatic limitations for, 193; community needed for, 1–2, 15; competitive nature of, 74, 76, 193; copper, 229; defense mechanisms against pests, 7–8; and Douglas firs, 214; and drought conditions, 77; estimating age of, 31, 63; growth strategy of, 33, 190; and humans, 190; leaf growth timing, 148; lifespan of, 155; and lightning, 205; microclimates created by, 99, 194; migration of, 189, 191; and moss, 168; and oaks, 69; pests for, 26, 115, 117; and pioneer species, 184; pruning of, 173; and rain, 102; reproduction by, 19, 25, 27, 29, 113, 187, 190; rest needed by, 142, 226; severely damaged, 71; small, 80; and water, 43, 57, 193; in wet conditions, 78, 111; winter preparations by, 144. See also deciduous trees
beech leaf-mining weevil, 26
beechnuts, 19, 27, 28, 29, 69, 113, 150, 187, 190
bees, 20, 23, 116
beetle mites, 88, 90
beetles: Asian long-horned, 216; bark, 54, 119, 132, 157, 236; black-headed cardinal, 55; blood-necked click, 129; habitation in wood, 129; hermit, 129; stag, 133; woodboring, 54, 70
betulin, 182
bicolored deceiver (Laccaria bicolor), 54
biodiversity: failure to notice, 231; importance of, 53, 130; loss of, 232; in trees, 131
birch: Arctic shrubby, 80; bark of, 62, 182; and ice, 141; paper, 247; seeds of, 187; silver, 181, 182, 183, 185; in wet conditions, 78
bird cherry tree, 22, 28, 73, 118, 137
birds: chaffinches, 112; and conifers, 21, 192; dispersal of seeds and organisms by, 28, 90, 217; fieldfare, 217; in forests, 231; habitations in trees, 127; jays, 69, 113, 150, 187, 190, 192; nutcracker, 192; nuthatch, 127; red crossbills, 21; sapsuckers, 114; woodpecker, 54, 114, 125
black cherry, 213
black-headed cardinal beetle, 55
black poplar, 215
blackthorn, 181
blood-necked click beetle, 129
blood pressure, 223
blue skies, 227
boars, 19, 27, 72, 191
bracket fungus, 133
Brazil, 107
breathing, 224
British Columbia, 234
bumblebee hoverfly, 132
butterflies, 231
Caledonian Forest, 92
cambium, 45, 54, 119, 158, 159
capillary action, 56, 58
carbohydrates, 51, 114, 224
carbon 14 dating, 81
carbon dioxide, 93, 95, 224
caterpillars, 117, 177
Central Europe: forests in, 64, 234, 236
chaffinches, 112
character, tree, 152, 154
cherry trees: bird cherry, 22, 28, 73, 118, 137; black, 213; fall leaves of, 144; wild, 137
chestnut trees, 12, 187
chlorophyll, 1–2, 138, 228, 229
climate: abrupt changes in, 196; behavioral adaptations for, 197; genetic adaptations for, 198; microclimates, 99, 101, 107, 194; and tree migration, 188, 194. See also climate change; weather-related damage
climate change: forests as tool against, 97, 98, 107; and greenhouse gases, 96; and permafrost, 40; temperature rises from, 153, 188; worse case scenario, 196. See also climate
coal, 94, 95
color, 227, 228
commercial forests, see managed forests
communication: and brain in root system, 82; loss of, 11; via electrical signals, 8, 10, 12, 83; via root and fungal systems, 10, 51; via scent in humans, 6–7; via scent in trees, 7–9, 12; via sound, 12, 48
community, see friendship
conifers: adaptation to additional light, 46; aging in, 65; air filtration by, 156, 222; blood pressure under, 223; and ice, 141; ideal shape for, 37, 41; microclimates created by, 107; outside of natural environment, 219, 222; phytoncides from, 156; and process conservation, 236; and rain, 103; reproduction by, 19, 21, 187; sickness in, 157; and streams, 109; terpenes from, 107; water transport vessels in, 57; winter preparation by, 138, 144. See also fir; pines; spruce
conifer sawflies, 118
conservation: economics of, 91; examples of, 233; failure of human attempts, 211; interference in regeneration, 237; and misconceptions about forest appearances, 238; and open clearings, 232; process of forest regeneration, 243; public demand for, 243; and safety in forests, 239
copper beech, 229
coppicing, 80
coral, 95
cork oaks, 207
counting, ability to, 148
crowns: and aging, 65; on beeches, 69; on conifers, 102; in heavy rain, 202; on oaks, 71; pruning of, 173; shade from, 32; in storms, 38, 140; wetland habitats in, 132
cypress, bald, 144
damage, see diseases; injuries; weather-related damage
dawn redwood, 144
dead wood, 130, 133
death: end of life, 66; from herbivores, 50; from lack of rest, 142, 226; and reproduction, 27; strangulation from climbing plants, 36, 165; in urban areas, 175, 178; from winter storms, 139
deciduous trees: adaptation to additional light, 46; aging in, 65; and Asian long-horned beetle, 216; and bees, 20; evolution of, 139; growth strategies of, 41; ideal shape for, 37, 153, 203; and rain, 103; reproduction by, 19, 21, 25; sickness in, 157; and snow, 141; and streams, 109; and tornadoes, 202; water transport vessels in, 57; winter preparation by, 137, 144; and winter storms, 139. See also beech; oaks; willows
deer: and bark, 123; and silver firs, 193; and young trees, 35, 120. See also herbivores
defense mechanisms: in acacia trees, 7; in beech, 7–8; against climatic changes, 197; in community-oriented species, 182; in elms, 8–9; against fire, 207; against fungi, 153, 160; hidden reserves, 156; human sensing of, 222; in oaks, 7–8, 9, 10, 70; against pests, 7–9, 116, 118; phytoncides, 156; in pines, 8–9; of pioneer species, 181, 183, 185; in quaking aspen, 183; in silver birch, 182, 185; in spruce, 7–8, 119; in willows, 9
diseases, 64, 156. See also injuries; weather-related damage
dogs, 176
Douglas fir, 62, 145, 206, 211, 213, 247
dove, Eurasian collared, 217
drought, 27, 45, 77, 209
drunken forests, 41
dust, 167, 212, 221, 222
dwarf trees, 79
Ecuador, 234
&nbs
p; elder trees, 144
electrical signals, 8, 10, 12, 83
elms, 8–9, 209
erosion, 87
etiquette, see shape, tree
Eurasian collared dove, 217
evolution, 195, 227
fever, 9
fieldfare, 217
fir: grand, 211; pests for, 115; and rain, 102; shedding of needles, 145; silver, 62, 65, 153, 192
fir, Douglas, 62, 145, 206, 211, 213, 247
fire, 206
fire salamander, 110
First Nations, 234
fish, 245
floods, 209
forest management, see conservation
forest preserves, 233
forestry industry, xiii. See also managed forests
forests: biodiversity in, 231; as carbon dioxide vacuum, 93; drunken, 41; human reactions to, 222; importance of, xi, 244; open areas in, 232; research on, 131, 249; as superorganisms, 3; as water pump, 106. See also conservation; managed forests; old-growth forests
fossil fuels, 94
freshwater snail, 107, 109
friendship: advantages of, 3–4; interconnection of roots, 2–3; levels of, 4–5; living stump example, 1–2; mutual support from, 15, 17, 249; and spacing of trees, 16
fruit flies, 242
fruit trees, 12, 148
fungi: introduction to, 50; and aphids, 116; and bark beetles, 119; and beetle mites, 88; defense against, 153, 160; host selection by, 52; lifespan of, 52; medical benefits from, 52; mycelium of, 50; partnership with, 2, 50, 54, 247, 248; and pinesap, 122; and pioneer species, 185; and pruned trees, 173; and resource redistribution, 16; resources taken from trees by, 51; and small cow wheat, 122; as threat, 66, 126, 157, 159; and toxins, 51; and tree communication, 10. See also fungi, types of
fungi, types of: annosus root rot, 158; ash dieback fungus, 216; bracket fungus, 133; honey fungus, 50, 121; Laccaria bicolor (bicolored deceiver), 54; oak milkcap, 50; red belt conk, 133. See also fungi
Gagliano, Monica, 12, 47
gall midges, 117
The Hidden Life of Trees: What They Feel, How They CommunicateDiscoveries from a Secret World Page 21