I shall observe in general that the method they have taken to asperse Govrs Character is such as the Greatest Villain would take to asperse the honestest man breathing & the only means that a villain can take…. It not only concerns the Ministry to discourage those Artifices which tend to destroy all Governmt & to bring every thing into confusion but likewise concerns every honest man who desires to enjoy his estate & liberty in safety. For if such principles be encouraged by success who can be safe. The greatest rogue the most abandon'd villain will be the greatest & most valued man where such attempts meet with success or publick approbation.5
Colden went on to point out that the governor had no power over the militia or the building and provisioning of the forts required to prevent incursions by the French Canadians and their allied Indians. The lack of financing had already precluded taking of the French fort at Crown Point on Lake Champlain and Fort Niagara on the Niagara River. Colden suggested that part of the solution was to have England directly appoint and salary the colonies' chief justices.
The year 1749 witnessed the publication the large “Map of Pensilvania, New-Jersey, New-York, and the Three Delaware Counties” by Lewis Evans (fig. 7) on which it is stated that “the greatest Part of New York Province is owing to the honourable Cadwallader Colden Esq.” Coldengham is identified on the map and an inscription borrows from Benjamin Franklin's discovery for the statement “The Sea Clouds coming freightened with Electricity and inciting others less so, the Equilibrium is restored by Snaps of Lightning….” The map is one of few to specifically locate Coldengham.
In 1750, John, the first Colden child to be born at Coldengham, died at age twenty-one. At age seventeen, he began running the farm when his parents were away. He served as the clerk of the city and county of Albany from March 1749. Cadwallader was in New York City when he learned of his son's death. He had insufficient funds with him to pay the legacy and funeral expenses and he sent home for forty pounds.6
Figure 7. Lewis Evans, “A Map of Pensilvania, New-Jersey, New-York, and the Three Delaware Counties,” 1749. Engraved (3rd state 1752), 64 x 48 cm. Courtesy Private Collector. The first map to depict the location of Coldengham. The material for the geography of New York and its boundaries was provided by Cadwallader Colden.
Colden, after serving over thirty years as surveyor general for the province, informed Governor Clinton that age had become a limiting factor. Colden requested that his son Alexander be appointed as his replacement. Colden expressed concern related to the “malice” against “myself tho' it may be restrain'd yet never ceases & only waits for a proper opportunity to exert itself.”7 In 1737, Alexander had been appointed ranger of Ulster County, where he operated a country store. In 1751, Alexander was appointed joint surveyor general of New York and became acting surveyor general when his father became acting governor in 1761. He was also post master of New York until his death in 1774.
Colden's continuous concern for his children's future is manifest in a 1755 letter to Peter Collinson.
I am under concern that all the care and trouble which I have taken should turn out so little advantage of my children & so very far short of what I might have done had I turn my thoughts as others commonly do to the advanceing my private fortune without any regard to the public weal. I now have seven children alive grown up to the state of men & woemen and twenty grand children. My children I am confident are allowed by all who know them to be deserving & my grand children promise as well as any children in the Country….”8
Throughout the remainder of Governor Clinton's tenure political animosities and polarization between his supporters and the faction led by Chief Justice Delancey continued. There was a move to suspend Delancey's appointment as lieutenant governor and appoint another. It was deemed more tactful to apply to the king and have him personally recall the commission.9 John Catherwood, secretary to Governor Clinton, also endorsed the removal of Delancey from the post of lieutenant governor.10
Delancey's influence persisted. When the governor's spokesmen addressed the Assembly made up of Delancey's cronies and relatives, they deliberately articulated messages that “were least calculated to kindle the party fires which Mr. Colden's incautious, luxuriant compositions and high principles had so often exasperated, to the advancement of the popularity of the person he meant to pull down.”11 Clinton, who would be recalled and become a member of Parliament, continued to support Colden as evidenced by the last letter to Colden just six months before transferring the governorship to Sir Danvers Osborn.12
During this period, in appreciation of his aging, Colden evidenced concern with his finances. He desired that a salary be attached to the office of surveyor general, and that the salary come from the king in view of the attitude of the Assembly.13 Colden also addressed his two main correspondents in England requesting that they act on his behalf regarding the recently vacated position of deputy post master general of America. To Collinson, Colden wrote that the salary of 300 pounds sterling was particularly attractive because it required little effort and would therefore allow him to continue to pursue his intellectual interests. Colden indicated that he was particularly deserving, because, unlike the two previous predecessors who lived in Virginia, his location in New York placed him in the center of business. In addition, his long-term public service unaccompanied by any allowance from the Crown merited consideration.14
At the same time, Colden wrote John Mitchell soliciting his assistance in obtaining the position of deputy post master general. Colden, once again stressed that he had served the government for about thirty years without salary, and confessed that “I never had any talent at getting or saving money tho' I never was expensive but I have had a large family to support & I wish to be usefull to them before I leave them.”15 This was an embarrassment for Mitchell, who had applied for the post himself.16 Colden was informed of this by John Rutherfurd, who wrote that he thought that Mitchell would be appointed.17 After a long period of consideration, on August 10, 1753, Benjamin Franklin received the appointment.
In May 1753, a letter from George Montagu Dunk, the Second Earl of Halifax, who was president of the Board of Trade from 1748–1761, written in response to a letter from Colden, added to Colden's disappointment. Although the earl informed Colden that there was no reason to suppose that there was any disapprobation of Colden's character or performance, he affirmed the appointment of Delancey as lieutenant governor. He also indicated that it was not appropriate to remove Delancey from his seat on the Council. The earl added that the Crown could not provide a salary for the position of surveyor general. He went on to report that Sir Danvers Osborn would soon assume the governorship of the province of New York, and concluded with “My earnest wish is that even the Remembrance of former animosities would no longer remain, and that the only Contention for the future may be who shall most effectually promote the welfare Peace and Tranquillity of the Province.”18
On October 7, 1753, Osborn arrived in New York City to take up his post as governor. The last act of Clinton's administration was the delivery to Delancey of his commission to be lieutenant governor. This was performed at a meeting of the Council immediately after presenting the seal of office to Osborn. On October 11, the new governor convened the Council. The next morning between seven and eight, he was found dead, hanging in the garden of the home where he had been staying.19
As lieutenant governor, Delancey assumed control of the administration, a situation that would persist for two years. Regaled with the adulation of his faction, he convened the strongly supportive Assembly, which extolled his abilities and virtues. This was followed by an overt focus on what they defined as the malicious “mal-administration” of Governor Clinton. The Assembly listed nine specific instances of Clinton's activities that generated deep dissatisfaction. Meanwhile, Colden had retired to his country estate, a disheartened man who had witnessed passage of a commission of lieutenant governor, which he had desired, to his enemy, Delancey. His plan to neutralize the enemy had failed.20
Sir Charles Hardy, the recently appointed governor of New York arrived in New York City on September 2, 1755. As a part of Hardy's commission, Delancey was added to the Council. Although Hardy had been named governor of Newfoundland in 1744, he never visited the island in that capacity. He was a naval officer with no tested administrative experience. He, therefore, relied heavily on Delancey. Correspondence between Colden and Hardy focused on the protection of the frontiers and the building of blockhouses to abort attacks.21
In 1756, the incursions by hostile Indians in Ulster and Orange Counties evoked an article in the Gazette censuring the Assembly. Initially, Colden was suspected of being the author, but the article was traced to a local Episcopal clergyman. A bill for raising and funding a militia was proposed. It was opposed by Colden, who deemed it insufficient. The Council sided with Colden, and the bill was consequently modified and passed.22 James Alexander, Colden's closest friend, exposed himself to inclement weather to attend the vote. He became ill and died shortly thereafter. On July 2, 1757, Hardy ended his governorship and hoisted his flag as rear admiral of the Blue in support of an expedition against Louisbourg. The administration of the province of New York reverted to Delancey.
The decade that extended from 1749 to 1758, for New Yorkers, was dominated by concern related to aggression and aggrandizement by the French Canadians and their Indian allies. The earlier years of that period were characterized by a sense of anticipation and a realization of the need to take protective measures. During the latter years, the soil of the province of New York was bloodied as the major site of what came to be known as the French and Indian War.
From the early part of the seventeenth century both England and France had staked claims on the North American continent. In 1713, as part of the Treaty of Utrecht, France ceded to Great Britain claims to the Hudson's Bay Company in Rupert's Land, Newfoundland, and Acadia. France was also to recognize British control over the Iroquois while trade with the more western Indians was open to traders of both nations. France retained control of Ile Saint Jean (Prince Edward Island) and Ile Royale (Cape Breton Island). In 1748, the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was confirmed by the Treaty of Utrecht.
The French had a long history of establishing forts to protect their commercial interests. In 1672, they built a fort on the north shore of the east entrance of Lake Ontario. A year later, they built a fort at Michilimackinac, where Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior come together. In 1684, a fort was erected at Niagara on the strait between Lakes Erie and Ontario. In 1732, they built a modern fort at Louisbourg on Cape Breton, subsequently built forts in Acadia and at Crown Point on Lake Champlain.
The British countered with construction of Fort Oswego on the southeastern shore of Lake Ontario in 1727 and the establishment of Halifax to rival Louisbourg in 1749. British claims and large land grants were extended into the Ohio Valley. As a consequence, in 1749 troops were sent forth from Montreal to the shores of the Allegheny and Ohio Rivers demanding that the British retreat to the eastern slopes of the Appalachian Mountains.
In a long letter written in August 1751, Colden summarized the state of Indian affairs for Governor Clinton.23 Colden detailed the events that had taken place since Clinton's initial engagement with the leadership of the Six Nations. The commissioners for Indian affairs had become totally ineffective and the conduct of Indian affairs was delegated to the leadership of Colonel William Johnson, who had been adopted as a member of the Iroquois and was highly regarded by them. Johnson resigned his governmental position because he had received insufficient funds to gain influence and was required to expend his own monies. When skirmishes with Indians allied with the French broke out, Johnson advanced his own funds to supply the garrison at Fort Oswego. The Assembly refused to advance funds or reimburse Johnson. The Indians allied with the British felt cheated by the British traders.
In the same letter, Colden suggested that the provincials build a fort on the northeastern shore of Lake Ontario near the origin of the St. Lawrence River to counterbalance Fort Frontenac, which the French had recently built. He indicated that measures should be taken against the French fort at Crown Point in order to stop trade between Albany and Canada. He also championed the construction of a fort between Albany and Wood Creek on the route from Albany to Canada.
The onset of the French and Indian War was specifically related to the interests of the Virginia colony in the Ohio Valley. When Lieutenant Governor Robert Dinwiddie of Virginia learned that the French had recently built two forts near the south shore of Lake Erie and had stationed 1,500 regular troops in the area, on October 31, 1753, he dispatched George Washington, a twenty-one-year-old colonel in the Virginia militia, on a mission to insist that the French depart. During his journey of more than 500 miles, Washington surveyed the fork of the Ohio River, where the Allegheny River and Monongahela River joined, and suggested that it provided the optimal site for a fort in the region.
On February 17, 1754, work was begun on a redoubt, which was to become Fort Prince George, in honor of the heir to the British throne. On April 18, Captain Pierre de Contrecoeur, in command of 500 troops, took possession of the barely begun building. The French completed the structure and named it Fort Duquesne. At the same time Washington led troops from Virginia to the area where he learned of the surrender. Washington encamped at Great Meadows, about sixty-five miles southwest of the forks of the Ohio. On May 28, he attacked a small group of French troops, that was also camped in the area. The French later maintained that Washington's action initiated the war.24 Anticipating reprisals, Washington erected a stockade at Great Meadows and named it Fort Necessity. On July 3, seven hundred French troops and over 350 Indians attacked the fort, and four hours later, Washington surrendered. He and his small contingent were allowed to return home.
At the same time that Washington was active in the Ohio Valley, diplomatic activity occurred in the northeastern colonies. Prior to opening of a proposed convention, Colden wrote Franklin his “Remarks on short hints to a Scheme for uniting the Northern Colonies.”25 He questioned whether, when the colonies were united for defense, it should be accomplished by an act of Parliament or by the assemblies. He also queried whether the designated governor general would have legislative authority and suggested that the grand council should be elected for a long tenure.
A convention for the adoption of a Plan of Union of the Colonies met at the courthouse in Albany on July 10, 1754. Representatives of all of the colonies, with the exception of Georgia and Delaware, attended. James Delancey, as the only governor in attendance, presided. Franklin reported a draft of a proposal that would establish a president general and a grand council of forty-eight members from the eleven colonies represented.26 Every representative at the convention consented to the plan with the exception of Delancey, who did not express opposition.27 In spite of Franklin‘s historic cartoon “Join or Die,” the first political cartoon published in America (fig. 8), the convention failed to accomplish any of its goals.
In February 1755, British Major General Edward Braddock arrived in Virginia with two regiments and presented plans for a three-pronged attack to contain the French. The Massachusetts force was to refurbish Fort Oswego and then capture Fort Niagara. Colonel William Johnson, with New York troops and Iroquois allies, were to capture Fort Frederick at Crown Point on Lake Champlain. Braddock would achieve the surrender of Fort Duquesne and gain control of the Ohio Valley. Unrelated to Braddock's plan, in June, the Massachusetts militia, with naval support, took possession of Fort Beausejour in French Acadia and renamed the area Nova Scotia.
Shortly thereafter, Braddock embarked on his assault on Fort Duquesne. On July 8 the British were routed. Braddock was mortally wounded, and 907 of 1,459 British troops were killed or wounded.28 Washington, who participated as a volunteer without rank or pay, had two horses shot from under him. Although several bullets pierced his clothing, he was not wounded.29 Despite knowledge of that defeat, the Massachusetts troops proceeded to Fort Oswego an
d secured the post but General Shirley elected to defer an attack on Fort Niagara.
Figure 8. “Join or Die” cartoon by Benjamin Franklin. First published in the Philadelphia Gazette May 9, 1754. The first political cartoon published in America.
New York occupied center stage in the conflict for two years. History had sensitized the citizens. On November 28, 1745, a party of French and Indians destroyed the community of over one hundred individuals at Saratoga; the fort was later abandoned in 1747. In 1748, skirmishes occurred in the vicinity of Schenectady where several cabins were destroyed. In 1755, William Johnson, an Irish immigrant who became the most influential individual in maintaining the alliance between the New York colonials and the Iroquois, was assigned the leadership of a proposed attack on Fort Frederick at Crown Point.
In July, as the troops proceeded toward the southern shore of Lac Saint Sacrament, they constructed a fort, which would ultimately be named Fort Edward. When Johnson's contingent reached the lake, he renamed it Lake George to honor the king, and built Fort William Henry to protect the area. On September 8, the battle that pitted Johnson's troops against a French force led by Commander-in-Chief Marshall Dieskau resulted in a stirring victory for the British and included the capture of the French commander.
On March 18, 1756, Great Britain formally declared war on France, and France reciprocated the next day. A string of forts were built between Albany and Lake Ontario. Fort Williams was constructed on the shore of the Mohawk River near Wood Creek; Fort Bull was built four miles to the west; a blockhouse erected at the east end of Lake Oneida; Fort Herkimer was built at German Flats. The fort at Oswego was reinforced by the Massachusetts militia. The French destroyed Fort Bull, and led by the new Commander-in-Chief Louis-Joseph de Montcalm, captured Fort Oswego on August 14, taking 1,600 prisoners.30 Toward the end of that year, Colden reported that about sixteen miles from Coldengham Indians burned several homes and murdered the inhabitants.31
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