'to exercise command': Commanding General C. G. Ballou, Camp Funston, to Adjutant General, March 12, 1918, Camp Funston, RG 393.
'overcrowded and inadequately heated': Maj. General Merritt W. Ireland, ed., Medical Department of the United States Army in the World War, v. 9, Communicable Diseases (1928), 415.
CHAPTER SEVEN
'arrival of American troops in France': F. M. Burnet and Ellen Clark, Influenza: A Survey of the Last Fifty Years (1942), 70.
'a special instance' among infectious diseases: Bernard Fields, Fields' Virology, (1996), 265.
mutate much faster: Ibid., 114.
'mutant swarm': J. J. Holland, 'The Origin and Evolution of Viruses,' in Microbiology and Microbial Infections (1998), 12.
'certain randomness to the disease': Ibid., 17.
CHAPTER EIGHT
resist putrefaction: Quoted in Milton Rosenau notebook, Dec. 12, 1907, Rosenau papers, UNC.
influenza kills more people: Harvey Simon and Martin Swartz, 'Pulmonary Infections,' and R. J. Douglas, 'Prophylaxis and Treatment of Influenza,' in section 7, Infectious Diseases, in Edward Rubenstein and Daniel Feldman, Scientific American Medicine (1995).
'It's equally likely': Peter Palese, personal communication with the author, Aug. 2, 2001.
'attacked at once': W. I. B. Beveridge, Influenza: The Last Great Plague: An Unfinished Story of Discovery (1977), 26.
'entirely depopulated': Ibid.
'as in a plague': John Duffy, Epidemics in Colonial America (1953), 187/88, quoted in Dorothy Ann Pettit, 'A Cruel Wind: America Experiences the Pandemic Influenza, 1918/1920, A Social History' (1976), 31.
'youngest as well as the oldest': Beveridge, Influenza, 26.
'all weer sick': Quoted in Pettit, 'Cruel Wind,' 32.
more people died from influenza: Beveridge, Influenza, 26/31.
Part III: The Tinderbox
CHAPTER NINE
'The rat serves one useful function': Major George Crile, 'The Leading War Problems and a Plan of Organization to Meet Them,' draft report, 1916, NAS.
'The war sentiment': Randolph Bourne, 'The War and the Intellectuals,' The Seven Arts (June 1917), 133/46.
'I am sure that my heart': Arthur Walworth, Woodrow Wilson, v. 2 (1965), 63.
'I will not cry 'peace'': Walworth, Woodrow Wilson, v. 1, 344.
'Once lead this people into war': Walworth, Woodrow Wilson, v. 2, 97.
'It isn't an army we must shape': Stephen Vaughn, Holding Fast the Inner Lines: Democracy, Nationalism, and the Committee on Public Information (1980), 3.
'the poison of disloyalty': David Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society (1980), 24.
'Thank God for Abraham Lincoln': Walworth, Woodrow Wilson, v. 2, 101.
'an imperative necessity': Walworth, Woodrow Wilson, v. 2, 97.
'governed by public opinion': Kennedy, Over Here, 47.
'casual or impulsive disloyal utterances': Vaughn, Holding Fast the Inner Lines, 226; Kennedy, Over Here, 81.
'from good motives': Richard W. Steele, Free Speech in the Good War (1999), 153.
two hundred thousand APL members: Joan Jensen, The Price of Vigilance (1968), 115.
'seditious street oratory': Ibid., 96.
'ninety percent of all the men': Kennedy, Over Here, 54.
'What the nation demands': Quoted in Jensen, Price of Vigilance, 79.
'Every German or Austrian': Ibid., 99.
'What had been folly': Kennedy, Over Here, 74.
'spreads pessimistic stories': Vaughn, Holding Fast the Inner Lines, 155.
'sinister intrigue': Jensen, Price of Vigilance, 51.
Two Communist parties: Robert Murray, Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria (1955), 16, 51/53.
'That community is already in the process': Learned Hand speech, Jan. 27, 1952, quoted in www.conservativeforum.org/authquot.asp?ID915.
'Truth and falsehood are arbitrary': Vaughn, Holding Fast the Inner Lines, 3.
most citizens were 'mentally children': Kennedy, Over Here, 91/92.
climbed onto a chandelier: Interview with Betty Carter, April 1997.
'one white-hot mass': Vaughn, Holding Fast the Inner Lines, 3.
'intellectual cohesion (herd-instinct': Bourne, 'War and the Intellectuals,' 133.
'the noblest of all mottoes': Vaughn, Holding Fast the Inner Lines, 141.
'I am Public Opinion': Ibid., 169.
'every printed bullet': Murray, Red Scare, 12.
'To fight for an ideal': Vaughn, Holding Fast the Inner Lines, 126.
'questionable jokes': Philadelphia Inquirer, Sept. 1, 1918.
'Force to the utmost!': Walworth, Woodrow Wilson, v. 2, 168.
'exert itself in any way': Red Cross news release, Aug. 23, 1917, entry 12, RG 52, NA.
'delivered at any point': Aug. 24, 1917 memo, entry 12, RG 52, NA.
'Confectioners and restaurants': See, for example, the Arizona Gazette, Sept. 26, 1918.
'go down to roll bandages': William Maxwell, unaired interview re Lincoln, Illinois, Feb. 26, 1997, for 'Influenza 1918,' American Experience.
'Military instruction under officers': Committee on Education and Training: A Review of Its Work, by the advisory board, unpaginated, appendix. C. R. Mann, chairman, RG 393, NA.
'mobilization of all physically fit registrants': Memo to the Colleges of the U.S. from Committee on Education and Training, Aug. 28, 1918; copy found in Camp Grant files, RG 393, NA.
CHAPTER TEN
'The Academy now considers': Quoted in Simon Flexner and James Thomas Flexner, William Henry Welch and the Heroic Age of American Medicine (1941), 366.
More soldiers had died of disease: United States Civil War Center, www.cwc.lsu.edu/cwc/other/stats/warcost.htm.
not a single microscope: Victor Vaughan, A Doctor's Memories (1926), 410.
'virgin' human population: Interview with Dr. Peter Palese, March 20, 2001.
killing 5 percent of all the men: Memo on measles, undated, RG 112, NA; see also Maj. General Merritt W. Ireland, ed., Medical Department of the United States Army in the World War, v. 9, Communicable Diseases (1928), 409.
rotating his attention: David McCullough, The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870/1914 (1977), 425/26.
'extremes the sexual moralist can go': William Allen Pusey, M.D., 'Handling of the Venereal Problem in the U.S. Army in Present Crisis,' JAMA (Sept. 28, 1918), 1017.
'A Soldier who gets a dose': Kennedy, Over Here, 186.
'no longer a danger': C. P. Knight, 'The Activities of the USPHS in Extra-Cantonment Zones, with Special Reference to the Venereal Disease Problem,' Military Surgeon (Jan. 1919), 41.
test the antitoxin: Flexner and Flexner, William Henry Welch, 371.
'[U]nit will be arranged': Colonel Frederick Russell to Flexner, June 11, 1917, Flexner papers, APS.
no mere cosmetic change: George A. Corner, A History of the Rockefeller Institute: 1901/1953, Origins and Growth (1964), 141.
'best from these classes': Notes on meeting of National Research Council executive committee, April 19, 1917, NAS.
half of all those' fit for service: Arthur Lamber, 'Medicine: A Determining Factor in War,' JAMA (June 14, 1919), 1713.
army had fifty-eight dentists: Franklin Martin, Fifty Years of Medicine and Surgery (1934), 379.
replaced labels on drug bottles: Lavinia Dock, 1909, quoted in Soledad Mujica Smith, 'Nursing as Social Responsibility: Implications for Democracy from the Life Perspective of Lavinia Lloyd Dock (1858/1956)' (2002), 78.
'at once sever my connection': Lavinia Dock et al., History of American Red Cross Nursing (1922), 958.
'carry out the plans': Ibid., 954.
CHAPTER ELEVEN
'Every single activity': Editorial, Military Surgeon 43 (Aug. 1918), 208.
'The consideration of human life': John C. Wise, 'The Medical Reserve Corps of the U.S. Navy,' Military Surgeon (July 1918), 68.
'they should be bayonetted': 'Review
of Offensive Fighting by Major Donald McRae,' Military Surgeon (Feb. 1919), 86.
'I was very glad': Flexner and Flexner, William Henry Welch, 371.
lowered the death rate: H. J. Parish, A History of Immunization (1965), 3.
banned all sales: Wade Oliver, The Man Who Lived for Tomorrow: A Biography of William Hallock Park, M.D. (1941), 378.
enough typhoid vaccine for five million: Vaughan to George Hale, March 21, 1917, Executive Committee on Medicine and Hygiene, general file, NAS.
'sent to any one of the camps': Flexner to Russell, Nov. 28, 1917, Flexner papers.
'prevention of infectious disease': Flexner to Vaughan, June 2, 1917, Flexner papers.
'Although pneumonia occurs': Rufus Cole et al., 'Acute Lobar Pneumonia Prevention and Serum Treatment' (Oct. 1917), 4.
'as if the men had pooled their diseases': Flexner and Flexner, William Henry Welch, 372.
'How many lives were sacrificed': Vaughan, A Doctor's Memories, 428/29.
'Not a troop train': Ibid., 425.
three thousand were sick enough: Ireland, Communicable Diseases, 415.
complications of measles: Vaughan, A Doctor's Memories, 57.
average death rate from pneumonia: Dorothy Ann Pettit, 'A Cruel Wind: America Experiences the Pandemic Influenza, 1918/1920, A Social History' (1976), 56.
'never in their confidence': Ibid., 3.
'seem to have deserted me': John M. Gibson, Physician to the World: The Life of General William C. Gorgas (1989), 242.
'send directions for Avery's': Welch diary, Jan. 2, 1918, WP.
CHAPTER TWELVE
evidence that the influenza virus: J. A. McCullers and K. C. Bartmess, 'Role of Neuraminidase in Lethal Synergism Between Influenza Virus and Streptococcus Pneumoniae,' William Osler, Osler's Textbook Revisited (1967), Journal of Infectious Diseases (2003), 1000/1009.
'To bleed at the very onset': 00.
'Pneumonia is a self-limited disease': Ibid.
'true inwardness of research': Quoted in McLeod, 'Oswald Theodore Avery, 1877/1955,' Journal of General Microbiology (1957), 540.
'An acute need for privacy': René Dubos, 'Oswald Theodore Avery, 1877/1955,' Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, 35.
'as if a mask dropped': Ibid.
'a natural born comedian': Donald Van Slyke, oral history, NLM.
about Landsteiner's personal life: René Dubos, The Professor, the Institute, and DNA (1976), 47.
notified he'd won the Nobel: Saul Benison, Tom Rivers: Reflections on Life in Medicine and Science, an Oral History Memoir (1967), 91/93.
'motives that lead persons to art or science': Quoted in Dubos, Professor, 179.
'a sweeping metabolic theory': Ibid., 95.
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
'Protection in man is inferior': Rufus Cole et al., 'Acute Lobar Pneumonia,' 4.
'lead all diseases': Ibid.
'diseases amongst the troops': See, for example, Gorgas to Commanding Officer, Base Hospital, Camp Greene, Oct. 26, 1917, entry 29, file 710, RG 112, NA.
All of them had negative reactions: Scientific reports of the Corporation and Board of Scientific Directors of Rockefeller Institute, April 20, 1918.
Camp Gordon outside Atlanta: Ireland, Communicable Diseases, 442.
'the matter of prophylactic vaccination': Cole to Russell, Dec. 14, 1917, entry 29, RG 112, NA.
controls suffered 101: Memo from Flexner to Russell, Oct. 3, 1918, entry 29, RG 112, NA.
Pasteur Institute was also testing: Ireland, Communicable Diseases, 125.
to meet Gorgas and Welch: Welch to Flexner wire, April 15, 1918; Flexner to Cole, April 16, 1918, Flexner papers.
'really a privilege': Michael Heidelberger, oral history, NLM, 83.
checking on everything: Ibid.
'chiefly in epidemic form': Rufus Cole, 'Prevention of Pneumonia,' JAMA (Aug. 1918), 634.
the Canadian army: W. David Parsons, 'The Spanish Lady and the Newfoundland Regiment' (1998).
'detention camps for new recruits': Welch diary, Dec. 28, 1917, WP.
Part IV: It Begins
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
Thirty of the fifty largest cities: Edwin O. Jordan, Epidemic Influenza (1927), 69.
'convenient to follow': F. M. Burnet and Ellen Clark, Influenza: A Survey of the Last Fifty Years (1942), 70.
of 172 marines: W. J. MacNeal, 'The Influenza Epidemic of 1918 in the AEF in France and England,' Archives of Internal Medicine (1919), 657.
appearance in the French army: Burnet and Clark, Influenza, 70.
36,473 hospital admissions: Quoted in Jordan, Epidemic Influenza, 78.
'At the end of May': Ibid.
'broken clean through': Harvey Cushing, A Surgeon's Journal 1915/18 (1934), 311.
'The expected third stage': Ibid.
'the epidemic of grippe': Ibid.
'a grievous business': Ray Stannard Baker, Woodrow Wilson: Life and Letters/Armistice March 1/November 11, 1918 (1939), 233.
'abuts on the harbor': Jordan, Epidemic Influenza, 85.
'swept over the whole country': Ibid., 87.
10,313 sailors fell ill: David Thomson and Robert Thomson, Annals of the Pickett-Thomson Research Laboratory, v. 9, Influenza (1934), 178.
'of a mild form': Jordan, Epidemic Influenza, 93.
doubt that it was influenza: MacNeal, 'Influenza Epidemic,' Archives of Internal Medicine (1919), 657.
'not influenza': From Policlinico 25, no. 26 (June 30, 1918), quoted in JAMA 71, no. 9, 780.
'very short duration': T. R. Little, C. J. Garofalo, and P. A. Williams, 'B Influenzae and Present Epidemic,' The Lancet (July 13, 1918), quoted in JAMA 71, no. 8 (Aug. 24, 1918), 689.
'fatal in from 24 to 48 hours': Major General Merritt W. Ireland, ed., Medical Department of the United States Army in the World War, v. 9, Communicable Disease (1928), 132.
'a new disease': Jordan, Epidemic Influenza, 36.
688 men were ill: George Soper, M.D., 'The Influenza Pandemic in the Camps,' undated draft report, RG 112, NA.
'any definite information': Cole to Pearce, July 19, 1918, NAS.
put more resources: Cole to Pearce, July 24, 1918, NAS.
declared the epidemic over: 'The Influenza Pandemic in American Camps, September 1918,' memo to Col. Howard from Office of the Army Surgeon General, Oct. 9, 1918, Red Cross papers, War Council notes, RG 200, NA.
'completely disappeared': Letter from London of Aug. 20, 1918, quoted in JAMA 71, no. 12 (Sept. 21, 1918), 990.
'mistaken for meningitis': Late summer report quoted in JAMA 71, no. 14 (Oct. 5, 1918), 1136.
'No letter from my beloved': Dorothy Ann Pettit, 'A Cruel Wind: America Experiences the Pandemic Influenza, 1918/1920, A Social History' (1976), 97, 98.
'some interesting cases': Ibid., 67.
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
most influenza experts: Interview with Robert Webster, June 13, 2002.
At the fifteenth passage: William Bulloch, The History of Bacteriology (1938, reprinted 1979), 143.
Changing the environment: Jordan, Epidemic Influenza, 511.
As the bacteria adapted to rabbits: Richard Shryock, The Development of Modern Medicine, 2nd edition (1947), 294/95.
1 million pigs: Bulloch, History of Bacteriology, 246.
'primarily virus influenza': Burnet and Clark, Influenza, 40.
'We must suppose': Ibid., 69, 70.
a ward was sealed off: Soper, 'Influenza Pandemic in the Camps.'
'they had influenza': Ibid.
'not like the common broncho-pneumonia': Adolph A. Hoehling, The Great Epidemic (1961), 21.
'an outbreak of epidemic influenza': Public Health Reports, 33, part 2 (July 26, 1918), 1259.
'I am confidentially advised': Entry 12, index card 126811, RG 52, NA.
'a progressive increase in cases': Ireland, Communicable Diseases, 83, 135.
'indistinguishably blend with': Ibid., 135.
'the seamen were prostrate': Jordan, Epide
mic Influenza, 114.
'a well-nourished people': John Duffy, A History of Public Health in New York City 1866/1966 (1974), 286.
children were malnourished: Ibid., 287.
two steamships from Norway: Soper, 'The Influenza Pandemic in the Camps.'
outbreak with high mortality: Ireland, Communicable Diseases, 137.
overwhelmed the naval hospital: Director of Labs, AEF, to SG, Dec. 10, 1918, entry 29, RG 112, NA.
'number of American negroes': Quoted in Pettit, 'Cruel Wind,' 94.
two natives died: Burnet and Clark, Influenza, 72.
five hundred of the six hundred laborers: A. W. Crosby, America's Forgotten Pandemic: The Influenza of 1918 (1989), 37.
7 percent of the entire crew died: Burnet and Clark, Influenza, 72.
struck down nine hundred: Ibid.
115 more deaths: Director of Labs, AEF, to SG, Dec. 10, 1918, entry 29, RG 112, NA.
'grossly overcrowded': Crosby, America's Forgotten Pandemic, 38.
'The Bible': From Medical Officers Training Camp at Camp Greenleaf, Georgia, Nov. 18, 1918, Rosenau papers, UNC.
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
'mess officer is well informed': Major R. C. Hoskins, 'Report of Inspection on Sept. 30, 1918,' Oct. 9, 1918, RG 112, NA.
inoculating a series of human volunteers: Undated report by Major Andrew Sellards, entry 29, RG 112, NA.
only eighty-four patients: 'Influenza Pandemic in American Camps, September 1918' see also Paul Wooley to SG, Aug. 29, 1918, RG 112, NA.
'very significant increase': Boston Health Department Monthly Bulletin, Sept. 1918, 183, quoted in Jordan, Epidemic Influenza, 115.
diagnosed as having meningitis: Major Paul Wooley, 'Epidemiological Report on Influenza and Pneumonia, Camp Devens, August 28 to October 1, 1918,' entry 29, RG 112, NA.
'which attacked so many': Ibid.
'occurred as an explosion': Ibid.
Eight of the twelve collapsed: 'Steps Taken to Check the Spread of the Epidemic,' undated, unsigned, entry 29, RG 112, NA; see also Katherine Ross, 'Battling the Flu,' American Red Cross Magazine (Jan. 1919), 11.
'These men start with what appears to be': Dr. Roy N. Grist to 'Burt,' British Medical Journal (Dec. 22/29, 1979).
'only a matter of a few hours': Ibid.
'we are all well': Russell to Flexner, Sept. 18, 1918, Flexner papers, APS.
'You will proceed immediately': Victor Vaughan, A Doctor's Memories (1926), 431.
The Great Influenza Page 53