perform it within thirty minutes: Charles Krumwiede Jr. and Eugenia Valentine, 'Determination of the Type of Pneumococcus in the Sputum of Lobar Pneumonia, A Rapid Simple Method,' JAMA (Feb. 23, 1918), 513/14; Oliver, Man Who Lived for Tomorrow, 381.
'so-called Spanish influenza': 'New York City letter,' JAMA 71, no. 12 (Sept. 21, 1918): 986; see also John Duffy, A History of Public Health in New York City 1866/1966 (1974), 280/90, passim.
'prepared to compel': 'New York City letter,' JAMA 71, no. 13 (Sept. 28, 1918), 1076/77.
'We mourn for him': Letter of Jan. 5, 1890, quoted in Oliver, Man Who Lived for Tomorrow, 26.
despite their animosity: Benison, Tom Rivers, 183.
'secret of course': Oliver, Man Who Lived for Tomorrow, 149.
'wanted to go places': Anna Williams, diary, undated, chap. 26, pp. 1, 17, carton 1, Anna Wessel Williams papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College.
'no one particular friend': 'Marriage' folder, undated, Williams papers.
'degrees to everything, including friendship': 'Religion' folder, March 24, 1907, Williams papers.
'if we were sure, oh!': 'Religion' folder, Aug. 20, 1915, Williams papers.
'discontent rather than happiness': 'Affections, longing, desires, friends' folder, Feb. 23, 1908, Williams papers.
'I have had thrills': 'Marriage' folder, undated, Williams papers.
no advice to give: Diary, Sept. 17, 1918, Williams papers.
'Death occurring so quickly': Diary, undated, chap. 22, p. 23, Williams papers.
quadrupled the number of horses: Oliver, Man Who Lived for Tomorrow, 378.
'Will your lab undertake': Pearce wire to Park, Sept. 18, 1918, influenza files, NAS.
'Will undertake work': Park wire to Pearce, Sept. 19, 1918, influenza files, NAS.
dismissed most of it: William Park et al., 'Introduction' (entire issue devoted to his laboratory's findings, divided into several articles), Journal of Immunology 6, no. 2 (Jan. 1921).
in fifteen minutes could fill three thousand tubes: Annual Report of the Department of Health, New York City, 1918, 86.
arbitrarily stopped counting: Mortality figures for the epidemic were no longer tabulated after March 31, 1919. By then the disease had died out in every major city in the country except New York City.
Nurses were literally being kidnapped: Permillia Doty, 'A Retrospect on the Influenza Epidemic,' Public Health Nurse (1919), 953.
'we are justified in': William Park and Anna Williams, Pathogenic Microroganisms (1939), 281.
'our methods' did not take into account': Park et al., 'Introduction,' 4.
'We had plenty of material': Diary, undated, chap. 22, p. 23, Williams papers.
220,488 test tubes: Annual Report of the Department of Health, New York City, 1918, 88.
'only results so far': Park to Pearce, Sept. 23, 1918, NAS.
she would find it: Edwin O. Jordan, Epidemic Influenza (1927), 391.
'the most delicate test': Park et al., 'Introduction,' 4.
'the starting point of the disease': Park to Pearce, Sept. 26, 1918, NAS.
CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR
'[h]is heart lies in research': Smith to Flexner, April 5, 1908, Lewis papers, RUA.
'one of the best': Flexner to Eugene Opie, Feb. 13, 1919, Flexner papers, APS.
the smartest man: Interview with Dr. Robert Shope, Jan. 31, 2002; interview with Dr. David Lewis Aronson, May 16, 2002.
'special service in connection': Lewis to Flexner, June 19, 1917, Flexner papers.
'no onerous routine duties': Lewis to Flexner, Oct. 24, 1917, Flexner papers.
'capacity to inhibit growth': See assorted correspondence between Flexner and Lewis, esp. Lewis to Flexner, Nov. 13, 1916, Flexner papers.
only one had died: W. R. Redden and L. W. McQuire, 'The Use of Convalescent Human Serum in Influenza Pneumonia' JAMA (Oct. 19, 1918), 1311.
suspected a virus: On Dec. 9, 1918, Lewis received permission from the navy to publish 'The Partially Specific Inhibition Action of Certain Aniline Dyes for the Pneumococcus,' entry 62, RG 125, NA; see also polio clipping in epidemic scrapbook, College of Physicians Library, Philadelphia, which mistakenly referred to a vaccine used by the city as being produced according to methods used in New York for polio. The specificity of this error almost certainly came from a misunderstanding of Lewis's work.
'badly decomposed' bodies: Transcript of New York influenza commission, meeting, Nov. 22, 1918, Winslow papers, SLY.
'armed the medical profession': Philadelphia Inquirer, Sept. 22, 1918.
only three people developed pneumonia: Transcripts of New York influenza commission, first session, Oct. 30, 1918; second session, Nov. 22, 1918; and fourth session, Feb. 14, 1919, Winslow papers.
failed to cure: Thomson and Thomson, Influenza, v. 10, (1934), 822.
'Technically, I am not well-trained': James Thomas Flexner, An American Saga: The Story of Helen Thomas and Simon Flexner (1984), 421.
'cleanliness of the glassware': Steven Rosenberg was the student. See Rosenberg and John Barry, The Transformed Cell: Unlocking the Secrets of Cancer (1992).
CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE
'Every case showed': Wolbach to Welch, Oct. 22, 1918, entry 29, RG 112, NA.
'causative agent': George Soper, M.D., 'The Influenza-Pneumonia Pandemic in the American Army Camps, September and October 1918,' Science (Nov. 8, 1918), 455.
'It is established': Vaughan and Welch to Gorgas, Sept. 27, 1918, entry 29, RG 112, NA.
'utter concentration on a few chosen goals': Dubos, The Professor, the Institute, and DNA (1976), 78.
'explore theoretical implications': McLeod, 'Oswald Theodore Avery, 1877/1955,' Journal of General Microbiology (1957), 541.
'imaginative vision of reality': Dubos, Professor, 177, 179.
'not random products of chance': Quoted in McLeod, 'Oswald Theodore Avery,' 544/46.
'hunter in search of his prey': Dubos, Professor, 173.
'Disappointment is my daily bread': Ibid., 91.
'compelled to take care of the cases': Cole to Russell, Oct. 23, 1918, entry 710, RG 112, NA.
the highest rate of pneumonia: 'Annual Morbidity Rate per 1000 Sept. 29, 1917 to March 29, 1918,' entry 710, RG 112, NA.
'as you interpret them': Callender to Opie, Oct. 16, 1918, entry 710, RG 112, NA.
thirteen thousand' hospitalized simultaneously: 'Red Cross Report on Influenza, Southwestern Division,' undated, RG 200, NA, 9.
offered all headquarters: Memo from Russell, Oct. 3, 1918, entry 29, RG 112, NA.
'not to be depended on': Maj. General Merritt W. Ireland, ed., Medical Department of the United States Army in the World War, v. 12, Pathology of the Acute Respiratory Diseases, and of Gas Gangrene Following War Wounds (1929), 73, 75.
six of 198 autopsies: Unsigned Camp Grant report, 6/7, entry 31d, RG 112, NA.
'inclined to take the stand': Ibid., 8.
'technical difficulties in the isolation': Oswald Theodore Avery, 'A Selective Medium for B. Influenzae, Oleate-hemoglobin Agar,' JAMA (Dec. 21, 1918), 2050.
'seems to me still doubtful': Cole to Russell, Oct. 23, 1918, entry 710, RG 112, NA.
had just cured twenty-eight: Cole, 'Scientific Reports of the Corporation and Board of Scientific Directors 1918,' Jan. 18, 1918, NLM.
took two months: Heidelberger oral history in Sanitary Corps, 84, NLM.
twenty-five liters a day: 'Scientific Reports of the Corporation and Board of Scientific Directors 1918,' April 20, 1918, RUA.
Part VIII: The Tolling of the Bell
CHAPTER TWENTY-SIX
'what the Prussian autocracy': David Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society (1980), 166.
'no more worries': John Eisenhower and Joanne Eisenhower, Yanks: The Epic Story of the American Army in World War I (2001), 221.
'not permitted to embark': Richard to March, Sept. 19, 1918, entry 29, RG 112, NA.
'that of a powder magazine': Surgeon, Port of Embark
ation, Newport News, to Surgeon General, Oct. 7, 1918, entry 29, RG 112, NA.
quarantining' for one week: See Richard to Adjutant General, various correspondences and cables, Sept. 25 through Oct. 10, 1918, entry 29, RG 112, NA.
Franklin Roosevelt' on a stretcher: Eleanor Roosevelt, This Is My Story (1937), 268.
'a true inferno reigned supreme': A. A. Hoehling, The Great Epidemic (1961), 63.
tracked the blood through the ship: John Cushing and Arthur Stone, eds., Vermont and the World War, 1917/1919 (1928), 6, quoted in A. W. Crosby, America's Forgotten Pandemic: The Influenza of 1918 (1989), 130.
orderlies carried away bodies: Crosby, America's Forgotten Pandemic, 130.
'died on board': Log of Leviathan, RG 45, NA.
'death in one of its worst forms': Quoted in Crosby, America's Forgotten Pandemic, 138.
more Third Division: Ibid., 163.
'dying by the score': George Crile, George Crile, An Autobiography, v. 2 (1947), 350/51, quoted in Crosby, America's Forgotten Pandemic, 166.
to freeze the movement: Undated Washington Star clipping in Tumulty papers, box 4, LC; see also Arthur Walworth, Woodrow Wilson, v. 2 (1965), 183/89, 462/63.
'decline to stop these shipments': Walworth, Woodrow Wilson, v. 2, 462/63.
'Every such soldier who has died': Ibid.
continued the voyages: Ibid.
picked a PHS scientist: Vaughan to George Hale, Aug. 23, 1917, Council National Defense papers, NAS.
when Tammany took over: Haven Anderson to Rosenau, Dec. 24, 1917, Rosenau papers, UNC.
'interests in the State' harmonized': Morris Fishbein, A History of the American Medical Association, 1847 to 1947 (1947), 736.
'health insurance will constitute': Blue, presidential address, reprinted in JAMA 66, no. 25 (June 17, 1916), 1901.
'not immediately necessary to the enforcement': Blue's office to McCoy, July 28, 1918, entry 10, file 2119, RG 90, NA.
'Owing to disordered conditions': Cole to Pearce, July 19, 1918, NAS.
'local health authorities': Public Health Reports, Sept. 13, 1918, 1340.
'manifestly unwarranted': Blue, undated draft report, entry 10, file 1622, RG 90, NA.
first influenza death: Washington Post, Sept. 22, 1918.
'Surgeon General's Advice to Avoid Influenza': Washington Evening Star, Sept. 22, 1918.
'arrange for suitable laboratory studies': Blue to Pearce, Sept. 9, 1919, NAS.
last yellow-fever epidemic: John Kemp, ed., Martin Behrman of New Orleans: Memoirs of a City Boss, (1970), 143.
appealed to the War Council: 'Minutes of War Council,' Oct. 1, 1918, 1573, RG 200, NA.
'contingent fund for' influenza': 'Minutes of War Council,' Sept. 27, 1918, RG 200.
'appear with electric suddenness': George Soper, M.D., 'The Influenza-Pneumonia Pandemic in the American Army Camps, September and October 1918,' Science (Nov. 8, 1918), 454, 456.
CHAPTER TWENTY-SEVEN
'depend upon its own resources': Quoted in 'Summary of Red Cross Activity in Influenza Epidemic' (undated), 6, box 688, RG 200; see also Evelyn Berry, 'Summary of Epidemic 1918/1919,' July 8, 1942, RG 200, NA.
'forty nurses ill': Jackson to W. Frank Persons, Oct. 4, 1918, box 688, RG 200, NA.
'telegraphed to all my chapters': Ibid.
'unable to handle adequately': Ibid.
72,219 physicians: Franklin Martin, Fifty Years of Medicine and Surgery, (1934), 384.
stripped hospitals of their workforce: Lavinia Dock et al., History of American Red Cross Nursing (1922), 969.
'no nurses left in civil life': Ibid.
CHAPTER TWENTY-EIGHT
'not planned specifically for your time': Flexner to Lewis, July 8, 1908, RUA.
'sever my connection': Mrs. J. Willis Martin to Mayor Thomas Smith, Oct. 8, 1918, Council of National Defense papers, HSP.
use that same organization: Undated memo, entries 13B/D2, RG 62, NA.
'death toll for one day': Ibid.
ceded to the group control: 'Minutes of Visiting Nurse Society for October and November, 1918,' Center for the Study of the History of Nursing, University of Pennsylvania.
'death rate for the past week': Krusen to Navy Surgeon General William Braisted, Oct. 6, 1918, entry 12, RG 52, NA.
'heartily endorse': Blue to Braisted, Oct. 7, 1918, entry 12, RG 52, NA.
'filth allowed to collect': Philadelphia Public Ledger, Oct. 10, 1918.
'condition' spreads the epidemic': Ibid.
'undertakers found it impossible': Mayor's Annual Report for 1918, 40, Philadelphia City Archives.
'took her to the cemetery': Anna Lavin, June 3, 1982, Charles Hardy oral history tapes, West Chester University.
'brought a steam shovel': Michael Donohue, transcript of unaired interview for 'Influenza 1918,' American Experience, Feb. 28, 1997.
'corpse on the front porches': Harriet Ferrell, transcript of unaired interview for 'Influenza 1918,' American Experience, Feb. 27, 1997.
'drawn by horses': Selma Epp, transcript of unaired interview for 'Influenza 1918,' American Experience, Feb. 28, 1997.
'Everything was quiet': Clifford Adams, Charles Hardy oral history tapes.
'Nursing Halting Epidemic': Philadelphia Inquirer, Oct. 16, 1918.
'calls not filled, 2,758': 'Directory of Nurses,' College of Physicians of Philadelphia papers.
Ten of the fifty-five: Joseph Lehman, 'Clinical Notes on the Recent Epidemic of Influenza,' Monthly Bulletin of the Department of Public Health and Charities (March 1919), 38.
'Calls for Amateur Nurses': In at least three Philadelphia newspapers, including the Philadelphia Inquirer and two unidentified newspaper clippings in epidemic scrapbook, Oct. 6, 1918, College of Physicians Library, Philadelphia.
'all persons with two hands': Unidentified newspaper clipping in epidemic scrapbook, Oct. 9, 1918, College of Physicians Library, Philadelphia.
'must have more volunteer helpers': Philadelphia Inquirer, Oct. 14, 1918.
'they will work all the harder': 'Minutes of Philadelphia General Hospital Woman's Advisory Council,' Oct. 16, 1918, HSP.
118 officers responded: Mayor's Annual Report for 1918, 40, City Archives, Philadelphia.
'[V]olunteers' are useless': 'Minutes of Philadelphia General Hospital Woman's Advisory Council,' Oct. 16, 1918, HSP.
'they still hold back': Undated clipping in epidemic scrapbook, College of Physicians Library.
'fear in the hearts': Susanna Turner, transcript of unaired interview for 'Influenza 1918,' American Experience, Feb. 27, 1997.
Day after day he carried: Ibid.
CHAPTER TWENTY-NINE
'not a soul to be seen': Geoffrey Rice, Black November: The 1918 Influenza Epidemic in New Zealand (1988), 51/52.
had died overnight: See 'Reminiscences Dana W. Atchley, M.D.' (1964), 94/95, Columbia oral history, quoted in Dorothy Ann Pettit, 'A Cruel Wind: America Experiences the Pandemic Influenza, 1918/1920,' (1976), 109.
'first casualty when war comes': Many citations of this comment originally made in 1917, including Newsday, June 15, 2003.
'plenty of gasoline': See, for example, Arizona Republican, Sept. 1, 1918.
possibility of plague: E. Bircher, 'Influenza Epidemic,' Correspondenz-Blatt fur Schweizer Aertze, Basel (Nov. 5, 1918), 1338, quoted in JAMA 71, no. 24 (Dec. 7, 1918), 1946.
'similarity of the two diseases': Douglas Symmers, M.D., 'Pathologic Similarity Between Pneumonia of Bubonic Plague and of Pandemic Influenza,' JAMA (Nov. 2, 1918), 1482.
'sorrow and sadness sat': Wade Oliver, The Man Who Lived for Tomorrow: A Biography of William Hallock Park, M.D. (1941), 384.
'may actually be reassuring': Providence Journal, Sept. 9, 1918.
'To dispel alarm': Run in many newspapers, for example, Arizona Republican, Sept. 23, 1918.
'epidemic is on the wane': JAMA 71, no. 13 (Sept. 28, 1918): 1075.
'no cause for alarm': Washington Evening Star, Oct. 13, 1918.
'ought
to see this hospital tonight': Quoted in Pettit, 'A Cruel Wind,' 105.
'Spanish influenza is plain la grippe': Arkansas Gazette, Sept. 20, 1918.
'something constructive rather than destructive': Report from Christian Science Monitor reprinted in Arizona Gazette, Oct. 31, 1918.
said nothing at all: See Review Press and Reporter, Feb. 1972 clipping, RG 200, NA.
'Fear kills more than the disease': Ibid.
'If ordinary precautions': Quoted in Crosby, America's Forgotten Pandemic, 92.
'Nothing was done': John Dill Robertson, Report of an Epidemic of Influenza in Chicago Occurring During the Fall of 1918, (1919) City of Chicago, 45.
'Worry kills more': The Survey 41 (Dec. 21, 1918), 268, quoted in Fred R. Van Hartesveldt, The 1918/1919 Pandemic of Influenza: The Urban Impact in the Western World (1992), 144.
mortality rate at Cook County: Riet Keeton and A. Beulah Cusman, 'The Influenza Epidemic in Chicago,' JAMA (Dec. 14, 1918), 2000/2001. Note the 39.8 percent corrects an earlier report in JAMA by Nuzum on Nov. 9, 1918, 1562.
'Fear is our first enemy': Literary Digest 59 (Oct. 12, 1918), 13-14, quoted in Van Hartesveldt, 1918-1919 Pandemic of Influenza, 144.
'Don't Get Scared': Albuquerque Morning Journal, Oct. 1, 1918, quoted in Bradford Luckingham, Epidemic in the Southwest, 1918-1919 (1984), 18.
'epidemic under control': Arizona Republican, Sept. 23, 1918.
deaths in New Orleans: Compare Arizona Republican, Sept. 19, 1918, to New Orleans Item, Sept. 21, 1918.
utterly silent: See Arizona Republican of Sept. 25, 26, 27, 28, 1918.
'most fearful are' first to succumb': Arizona Gazette, Jan. 9, 1919.
'refrain from mentioning the influenza': Arizona Gazette, Nov. 26, 1918.
'Simply the Old-Fashioned Grip': See Vicks VapoRub ad run repeatedly all over the country, for example, in Seattle Post-Intelligencer, Jan. 7, 1919.
'come up through the grapevine': Dan Tonkel, transcript of unaired interview for 'Influenza 1918,' American Experience, March 3, 1997.
'not inclined to be as panicky': Gene Hamaker, 'Influenza 1918,' Buffalo County, Nebraska, Historical Society 7, no. 4.
'do much toward checking the spread': See, for example, Washington Evening Star, Oct. 3, 1918.
'Every person who spits': Unidentified, undated clipping in epidemic scrapbook, College of Physicians Library.
The Great Influenza Page 55