Souza, de P. (2003) The Greek and Persian Wars 499–386 B.C. Oxford: Osprey Publishing Ltd.
Spivey, N. (2004) The Ancient Olympics. War Minus the Shooting. New York: Oxford University Press.
Stadter, P. A. (1989) A Commentary on Plutarch’s Pericles. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Stefani, O. (1990) I rilievi del Canova. Milan: Electa.
Stone, I. F. (1988) The Trial of Socrates. Toronto: Little, Brown.
Storey, I. C. and Allan, A. (2005) A Guide to Ancient Greek Drama. Oxford: Blackwell.
Stroud, R. S. (1998) The Athenian Grain-Tax Law of 374/3 B.C., in Hesperia Supplements 29. Princeton, NJ: American School of Classical Studies at Athens.
Szlezák, T. A. (2000) ‘Platon (1)’, Der Neue Pauly IX (Stuttgart/Weimar: J.B. Metzler), cols 1095–1109.
Taylor, C. C. W. (2000b) ‘Review: Describing Greek Philosophy’ in Classical Review 50: 140–142.
——— (2000a) Socrates: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Thesleff, H. (1982) Studies in Platonic Chronology. Helsinki: Societas Scientiarum Fennica.
Thompson, H. A. and Wycherley, R. E. (1972) The Agora of Athens: History, Shape and Uses of an Ancient City Center (The Athenian Agora Vol. 14). Princeton: American School of Classical Studies at Athens.
Thorton, B. S. (1997) Eros: The Myth of Ancient Greek Sexuality. Oxford: Westview Press.
Tilley, A. F. (2004) Seafaring on the Ancient Mediterranean. Oxford: John and Erica Hedges Ltd [British Archaeological Reports 1268].
——— (1992) ‘Three Men to a Room – a Completely Different Trireme’ in Antiquity 66: 599–610.
Todd, S. C. (1996) Athens and Sparta. London: Bristol Classical Press.
——— (2000) ‘How to Execute People in Fourth-century Athens’ in V. Hunter and J. Edmonson (2000) Law and Social Status in Classical Athens. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 31–51.
——— (1993) The Shape of Athenian Law. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Travlos, J. (1971) Pictorial Dictionary of Ancient Athens. London: Thames and Hudson. Tucker, T. G. (1907) Life in Ancient Athens: The Social and Public Life of a Classical Athenian from Day to Day. London: Macmillan.
Tuplin, C. J. (1996) ‘Xenophon (1)’, OCD3 (Oxford/New York: OUP): 1628–1630.
Van Wees, H. (2004) Greek Warfare. Myths and Realities. London: Duckworth.
Vander Waerdt, P. A. (1994) ‘Socrates in the Clouds’ in P. A. Vander Waerdt (ed.), The Socratic Movement. London: Cornell University Press: 48–86.
Vernant, J. (2001) The Universe, the Gods and Mortals: Ancient Greek Myths; translated by L. Asher. London: Profile Books.
Vickers, M. (2008) Sophocles and Alcibiades: Athenian Politics in Ancient Greek Literature. Stocksfield: Acumen.
Vivante, B. (2007) Daughters of Gaia: Women in the Ancient Mediterranean World. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.
Walker, H. J. (1995) Theseus and Athens. New York: Oxford University Press.
Wallace, R. W. (1994) ‘Private Lives and Public Enemies: Freedom of Thought in Classical Athens’ in A. L. Boegehold and A. C. Scafuro (eds.) Athenian Identity and Civic Ideology. Baltimore; London: The Johns Hopkins University Press: 205–238.
Waterfield, R. (2009) Why Socrates Died. Dispelling the Myths. London: Faber and Faber.
Whitby, M. (ed.) (2002) Sparta. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
White, F. C. (2008) ‘Beauty of the Soul and Speech in Plato’s Symposium’ in Classical Quarterly 58: 69–81.
White, S. A. (2000) ‘Socrates at Colonus: A Hero for the Academy’ in N. D. Smith and P. B. Woodruff (eds.) (2000) Reason and Religion in Socratic Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 151–175.
Whitehead, D. (1986) The Demes of Attica, 508/7-ca.250 B.C. Princeton and Guildford: Princeton University Press.
Wilkins, E. G. (1979) ‘Know Thyself’ in Greek and Latin Literature. New York: Garland Pub.
Wilkins, J. (1990) ‘The Young of Athens: Religion and Society in Herakleidai of Euripides’ in Classical Quarterly 40: 329–339.
Wilkins, J. and Hill, S. (2006) Food in the Ancient World. Malden, MA; Oxford: Blackwell.
Williams, D. (1993) ‘Women on Athenian Vases: Problems of Interpretation’ in A. Cameron and A. Kuhrt (eds.), Images of Women in Antiquity. Detroit: Wayne State University Press: 92–107.
Wilson, E. (2007) The Death of Socrates: Hero, Villain, Chatterbox, Saint. London: Profile Books.
Wood, M. (2005) The Road to Delphi: The Life and Afterlife of Oracles. London: Pimlico, Random House.
Woodbury, L. (1965) ‘The Date and Atheism of Diagoras of Melos’ in Phoenix 19: 178–211.
——— (1973) ‘Socrates and the Daughter of Aristides’ in Phoenix 27: 7–25.
Woodhead, A. G. (1959) ‘The Institution of the Hellenotamiae’ in Journal of Hellenic Studies 79: 149–153.
Woodruff, P. (2005) First Democracy: The Challenge of an Ancient Idea. New York: Oxford University Press.
——— (1993) On Justice, Power, and Human Nature: The Essence of Thucydides’ History of the Peloponnesian War; edited and translated by Paul Woodruff. Indianapolis and Cambridge: Hackett Publishing.
Young, S. (1939) ‘An Athenian Clepsydra’ in Hesperia 8.3, The American Excavations in the Athenian Agora: Sixteenth Report: 274–284.
Zahm, J. A. (1913) Women in Science. New York: Appleton.
Zaidman, L. B. and Pantel, P. S. (1992) Religion in the Ancient Greek City translated by P. Cartledge. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Zanker, P. (1995) The Mask of Socrates: The Image of the Intellectual in Antiquity translated by A. Shapiro. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Pheidias Showing the Frieze of the Parthenon to His Friends by Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema. Pheidias is shown demonstrating his handiwork to Pericles and Aspasia amongst others. During recent renovations of the Parthenon, the remnants of a stonemason’s picnic-lunch (fish and fowl bones) were discovered at this high level of construction.
An academic reconstruction of the kinds of colour schemes actually used by craftsmen of the sixth and fifth centuries
BC to decorate the monuments and sculptures of Greek city-states. This particular statue came from a temple on the island of Aegina.
Socrates speaks to two students. An early thirteenth-century miniature now held by the Topkapi Museum, Istanbul. Illustration for the eleventh-century collection by Fatimid prince al-Mubashshir ibn Fatik,
Mukhtaral-Hikam, ‘The choicest maxims and best sayings’.
A romantic tradition has elevated Aspasia’s influence in Athens, and over both Socrates and Pericles. This painting by Nicolas-André Monsiau was part product of the new vogue for ‘salons’. Aspasia was hailed in certain circles in the early nineteenth century as the first salonière, as a woman who enjoyed an equal marriage with Pericles and who, quite rightly, had been free to choose whom she should love.
Athens’ plague killed many tens of thousands. Scientific research over the last fifteen years suggests this was almost certainly a pandemic of the typhus virus. Michiel Sweerts, following Thucydides’ eye-witness accounts, imagined its effects in this painting,
The Plague in Athens.
A shoe-making workshop. The various processes of stretching and cutting the leather are shown here (note the knives on the wall and the bowl of water under the table). Socrates was said to have spent much time philosophising with the young men of the city in the workshop of Simon the Shoemaker at the fringes of the Agora.
The paintings around Athens would have been exquisite. None of these have survived but we get a good sense of the delicacy of the work from the well-preserved interior decorations of graves preserved in northern Greece – for example this lovely fourth-century dove currently on display in the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki.
A cartoon version of Socrates’ satirical treatment by Aristophanes in his comedy
Clouds.
The Agora at its point of excav
ation in 1949 – the protecting presence of mountains around the city is clearly visible in this picture. This photograph was taken from the vantage point of the Hephaisteion.
The index cards of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens detailing the excavation of a herm. This herm is a Roman copy of a fifth-century original. Herms would have been highly visible in Socrates’ city as boundary markers and totems of good fortune. The herms were shockingly devastated (it was whispered through the streets of the city-state, by Alcibiades and his aristocratic crew) the night before the allied fleet set sail to Sicily in 416
BC.
Local men (up to 100 were employed in the first excavating season of 1931) remove spoil from the Agora – this waste was sent out to be dumped along the Sacred Way leading to Eleusis.
Pot menders at work in 1937.
The diggers who helped to expose a Bronze Age Mycenaean chamber tomb beneath the Agora in 1939.
Athena – the goddess both of war and of reason and wisdom. In this depiction from
c.460 BC, Athena’s spear is resting on her shoulder, her shield on her thigh; it is the writing tablet in her hand that holds the goddess rapt, a stylus held up to her mouth. The technology and popularity of writing exponentially increased during Socrates’ lifetime.
Two young girls (aged somewhere between five and ten) hold hands and join in a group dance in honour of the goddess Artemis. Dating from the first half of the fifth century
BC, this fragment has recently been discovered down a well in the south-east stoa area of the Agora.
A ‘Little Bear’ from the Sanctuary at Brauron. These Athenians were sent out of the city for a year to ‘run’ the wild animal out of them. The young girls are often shown cradling pets.
A young child is welcomed in to society during the Athenian Festival of Anthesteria, a ritual that honoured the god Dionysos. A celebration of the rebirth of nature and of the dead, the Anthesteria also reminded the community of the vital power of children. Once a child had reached the age of three and was then further honoured at the feast of Choes, its name was entered on to the phratry list – it was now officially part of the Athenian citizen community.
Socrates in Prison by Nicolai Abraham Abildgaard. Socrates, alone with his two daimonia—his inner ‘demons’. He hears only the voice of the good spirit because the bad daimonion’s mouth is covered up. The Athenians were very troubled by Socrates’ expressions of a kind of private piety as represented here.
Socrates, glaring, sitting on a bench, appeared on the walls of a private house in Ephesus in the first century
AD and also on the walls of Pompeii.
The Death of Socrates by Jacques-Louis David. Neo-classical and Romantic painters frequently heroised the moment of Socrates’ hemlock-drinking. Current scientific research suggests the form of hemlock the philosopher imbibed may well have ensured a relatively dignified death – which nonetheless included paralysis and suffocation.
The Hemlock Cup: Socrates, Athens, and the Search for the Good Life Page 59