by Rachel May
McKinley, Catherine E. Indigo: In Search of the Color that Seduced the World. New York: Bloomsbury, 2011.
“Mrs. Abraham Crouch (Sophia Jane Withers)” & “Abraham Crouch,” Gibbes Museum of Art, Charleston, SC, http://www.gibbesmuseum.org/miniatures/collection.
Murphy, Brian. The Root of Wild Madder: Chasing the History, Mystery, and Lore of the Persian Carpet. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006.
Myers, Amrita Chakrabarti. Forging Freedom: Black Women and the Pursuit of Liberty in Antebellum Charleston. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2011.
Parker, Rozsika. The Subversive Stitch: Embroidery and the Making of the Feminine. New York: I.B. Tauris, 2010.
Pinka, Sharon Fulton. “Lowcountry Chintz: The Townsend/Pope Quilt Legacy,” ed. Lynne Zacek Bassett, Uncoverings 2013, (Lincoln, NE: American Quilt Study Group).
Powers, Bernard E. Black Charlestonians: A Social History, 1822–1885. Fayetteville: The University of Arkansas Press, 1994.
Robertson, David M. Denmark Vesey: The Buried Story of America’s Largest Slave Rebellion. New York: Vintage, 2009.
Rudisel, Christine and Bob Blaidsell, eds. Slave Narratives of the Underground Railroad. Mineola, NY: Dover Thrift Editions, 2014.
Stankiewicz, Mary Ann. “Middle Class Desire: Ornament, Industry, and Emulation in 19th Century Art Education,” Studies in Art Education. Vol 43, No 4, Summer 2002, 324–338.
Stansell, Christine. City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1780–1860. Carbondale: University of Illinois, 1987.
The Charleston Museum, Mosaic Quilts: Paper Template Piecing in the South Carolina Lowcountry (Greenville, SC: Curious Works Press, 2002).
Tipton-Martin, Toni. The Jemima Code: Two Centuries of African American Cookbooks. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2015.
Twitty, Michael W. The Cooking Gene: A Journey Through African American Culinary History. New York: Amistad, 2017.
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Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher. “Of Pens and Needles: Sources for the Study of Early American Women.” Journal of American History. 77 (1990): 200–207.
Chapter 5: Medicine & Its Failures
Notes
Thank you to Matt Herbison, Archivist, Legacy Center: Archives & Special Collection, College of Medicine, Drexel University, for help with photos of the doctors who graduated from Drexel and for suggesting I look at the embroidered pillow sham.
For more on David Jones Peck’s abolitionism and work with Frederick Douglass, see: Brown, Ira V. “An Antislavery Journey: Garrison and Douglass in Pennsylvania, 1847,” Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid-Atlantic Studies, 67, no. 4 (Autumn 2000): 532–550.
For more on Gynecology/Medicine and Enslaved People, please see: Schwartz, Marie Jenkins. Birthing a Slave: Motherhood and Medicine in the Antebellum South; Roberts, Dorothy. Killing the Black Body: Race, Reproduction, and the Meaning of Liberty. New York: Vintage, 1998; Washington, Harriet A. Medical Apartheid: The Dark History of Medical Experimentation on Black Americans from Colonial Times to the Present; Owens, Deirdre Cooper. Medical Bondage: Race, Gender, and The Origins of American Gynecology; Ross, Loretta and Rickie Solinger. Reproductive Justice: An Introduction. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2017.
p. 147, “A young man goes to the doctor . . .” quotes p. 148, and p. 152 “Research suggests . . .” from Hoffman, Kelly M. and Sophie Trawalter, Jordan R. Axt, and M. Norman Oliver. “Racial bias in pain assessment and treatment recommendations, and false beliefs about biological differences between blacks and whites,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 113, no.16 (April 19, 2016): 4296–4301, Published online April 4, 2016: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4843483/.
p. 165–168, Sarah Nesnow gathered images of Dr. Hasell Crouch’s estate sale and provided contextual information regarding the sale of Jane, John, Eliza, Minerva, Juba, and their children.
Primary Sources
Crumpler, Rebecca Lee. A Book of Medical Discourses, in Two Parts. Boston: Cashman, Keating, 1883. Open Knowledge Commons, US National Library of Medicine, https://archive.org/details/67521160R.nlm.nih.gov.
Denman, Thomas, M.D. An Introduction to the Practice of Midwifery, Seventh Edition with a Biographical Sketch of the Author. London: E. Cox, 1832. Google Books: https://books.google.com/booksid=ZNZNAQAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false.
“Letter from Susan to Eliza Williams,” December 10, 1835, Series F: Franklin Cushman’s notebooks, vol. 2: 52–54, (Elijah Williams Papers, Rhode Island Historical Society).
“Letter from Hilton to Eliza Williams,” May 7, 1836. Series F: Franklin Cushman’s notebooks, vol. 2: 56–58, (Elijah Williams Papers, Rhode Island Historical Society).
“Letter from Hilton to his sister,” June 1, 1836, Series F: Franklin Cushman’s notebooks, vol. 2: 59–60, (Elijah Williams Papers, Rhode Island Historical Society).
“Letter from Susan and Hasell to their sister,” June 6, 1836, Series F: Franklin Cushman’s notebooks, vol. 2: 61–63, (Elijah Williams Papers, Rhode Island Historical Society).
“Letter from Susan to Eliza Williams,” November 5, 1835, Series F: Franklin Cushman’s notebooks, vol. 2: 46, (Elijah Williams Papers, Rhode Island Historical Society).
“Letter from Winthrop to Eliza Williams,” July 10, 1836, Series F: Franklin Cushman’s notebooks, vol. 2: 69–71, (Elijah Williams Papers, Rhode Island Historical Society).
“Letter from Winthrop to his sister Emily,” December 2, 1836, Series F: Franklin Cushman’s notebooks, vol. 2: 116, (Elijah Williams Papers, Rhode Island Historical Society).
Secondary Sources
“Background on Providence Society for Abolishing the Slave Trade Minute Book,” Special Collections and University Archives: UMass Amherst Libraries, scua.library.umass.edu/ead/mums935
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Bolster, W. Jeffrey. “Putting the Ocean in Atlantic History: Maritime Communities and Marine Ecology in the Northwest Atlantic, 1500–1800.” The American Historical Review. Vol. 113, No. 1 (February 2008) 19–47.
Brunelli, John. “McKisick Explores Different Treatments of Yellow Fever,” January 26, 2017. University of South Carolina. http://www.sc.edu/uofsc/posts/2017/01/mckissick_museum_black_medicine_white_bodies.php#.Wl2A_7SpkW9.
Fenn, Elizabeth A. Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1775–82. New York: Hill and Wang, 2002.
Fett, Sharla M. Working Cures: Healing, Health, and Power on Southern Slave Plantations. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002.
Hartigan-O’Connor, Ellen. “‘She Said She Did Not Know Money’: Urban Women and Atlantic Markets in the Revolutionary Era.” Early American Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal. Vol. 4, No. 2, Fall 2006. 322–352.
Hartman, Saidiya. “Venus in Two Acts,” Small Axe. Number 26 (Vol 12, Number 2), June 2008, 1–14.
“History of Minorities in Medicine,” Office for Diversity and Inclusion, University of Alabama at Birmingham, https://www.uab.edu/medicine/diversity/initiatives/minorities/history.
“History of the Medical College,” Medical University of South Carolina, MUSC.edu.
Hoffman, Kelly M. and Sophie Trawalter, Jordan R. Axt, and M. Norman Oliver. “Racial bias in pain assessment and treatment recommendations, and false beliefs about biological differences between blacks and whites,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 113, no.16 (April 19, 2016): 4296–4301, Published online April 4, 2016: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4843483/.
Hughes, Warren. “Wavering Place Plantation,” Columbia Living Magazine, (Nov.–Dec. 2016): Culture Posted online November 23, 2016, https://columbialivingmag.com/wavering-place-plantation.
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Lombardo, Paul. “Book Review: Tuskegee’s Truths: Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine. 75.3 (2001): 616–617.
McCandless, Peter. Slavery, Disease, and Suffering in the Southern Lowcountry. Cambridge Studies on the American South. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011.
McGregor, Deborah. From Midwives to Medicine: The Birth of American Gynecology. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1998.
Morgan, Kenneth. “Slave Sales in Colonial Charleston,” The English Historical Review. 113.453 (Sept. 1998): 905–920.
Morgan, Thomas. “The Education and Medical Practice of Dr. James McCune Smith (1813–1865), first black American to hold a medical degree,” The Journal of the National Medical Association, 95, no. 7 (July 2003): 603–614, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2594637/.
Moskowitz, Milton. “The Black Medical Schools Remain the Prime Training Ground for Black Doctors,” The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, No. 5 (Autumn 1994): 69–76.
Murphy, Eliza, “Slave Descendant Unites with Plantation Owner for Heartwarming Dinner 181 Years After Families Lived There,” ABC News, July 5, 2016. http://abcnews.go.com/Lifestyle/slave-descendant-unites-plantation-owner-heartwarming-dinner-181/story?id=40276632.
Myers, Amrita Chakrabarti. Forging Freedom: Black Women and the Pursuit of Liberty in Antebellum Charleston. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2011.
“Rebecca Lee Crumpler,” Changing the Face of Medicine, US National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, June 3, 2015, https://cfmedicine.nlm.nih.gov/physicians/biography_73.html.
Savitt, Todd L. Medicine and Slavery: The Diseases and Health Care of Blacks in Antebellum Virginia. Blacks in the New World. Carbondale: University of Illinois Press, 1981.
Skloot, Rebecca. The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks. New York: Broadway Books, 2011.
Spillers, Hortense J. “Mama’s Baby, Papa’s Maybe: An American Grammar Book,” Diacritics, 17, no. 2, Culture and Countermemory: The ‘American Connection’ (Summer 1987): 64–81.
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Vlach, John Michael. “The Plantation in an Urban Setting: The Case of the Aiken-Rhett House in Charleston, South Carolina.” Southern Cultures, Volume 5, Number 4, Winter 1999, 52–69.
Chapter 6: Hickory Root
Notes
For more on women’s roles, please see: Pease, Jane H. and Wiliam H. Pease. Ladies, Women, and Wenches: Choice and Constraint in Antebellum Charleston and Boston. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1990; Gillespie, Michele and Susanna Delfino. Neither Lady Nor Slave: Working Women of the Old South. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2002.
p. 171–176, p. 181–190, Sarah Nesnow found the estate sale ads that include mention of Jane as “complete seamstress,” as well as Juba Simons’ death certificate, and information on Mary Ancrum Walker, her North Carolina plantation, and the people she owned. She also found that as of 1846, Winthrop and Hilton still owed Susan money on her estate including the sale of her enslaved people. I’m grateful to Sarah Nesnow for several long conversations about this information, especially the likelihood that this is the same Juba who was owned by Hasell Crouch, as well as the laws of enslavement and inheritance in South Carolina.
p. 184, “blacksnake root, furrywork, jimpsin weed, one that tie’ on the head,” Interview with Henry Brown, 637 Grove St., Charleston, SC, Slave Narratives: A Folk History of the United States from Interviews with Former Slaves, 1936–1938, Volume XIV, South Carolina Narratives, Part I. Prepared by the Federal Writers’ Project of the Works Progress Administration, Project 1655, interviewer Augustus Ladson, Kindle E-Book.
“gypsum tea, which was boiled into a tea and drunk . . .” Gillam Lowden, Greenwood, SC, June 23, 1937. Interviewer G.L. Summer, ed. Elmer Turnage, July 8, 1937. Project 1885, Spartanburg, District 4. Federal Writers’ Project: Slave Narrative Project, Vol. 14, South Carolina, Part 3, Jackson-Quattlebaum: 124. United States Works Progress Administration, Library of Congress, http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/mesn.143.
[Gillam also says, “I ‘member de old brick oven our marster had. Dey cooked lots of bread on Sad’day atternoons to last several days. Den we had corn-shuckings. de women had quiltings. Us chaps didn’t play many games ‘cept marbles, rope-skipping, and jumping high rope. We didn’t git to go to school.”]
“My white folks give me to de doctors . . .” Sara Brown, Marion, SC, June 1937. Prepared by Annie Ruth Davis. Project 1885-1. Federal Writers’ Project: Slave Narrative Project, Vol. 14, South Carolina, Part 3, Jackson-Quattlebaum: 124. United States Works Progress Administration, Library of Congress, http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/mesn.137.
p. 189, “petitioned the court . . .” This was one of the first documents I found on my journey to South Carolina, noting that Hilton had petitioned the court “on the estate of Dr. H.M. Crouch, late of Charleston, . . . that he may be empowered to sell and dispose of the property of said estate consisting of 7 Negroes, a House on Sullivan’s Island, ½ pew in St. Philips Church & household furniture for the purpose of making a division . . . It is desirable that the small portions of both widow and child should be consolidated as much as possible, as it is the intention of the widow and child to reside at the North.” April 10, 1837, Charleston, SC. “Some Original Charleston Probate Records,” South Carolina Magazine of Ancestral Research, Vol. 40, Folder p-180 (2012): 159. My thanks to the librarians in the South Carolina History Room at the Charleston County Public Library, for helping me to find this and other information on the family and the people they owned.
p. 190, “Slaves held a market . . .” from Kennedy, Cynthia M. Braided Relations, Entwined Lives: The Women of Charleston’s Urban Slave Society. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005.
p. 191–192, Romeo Eldridge Phillips quotes Mary Ellen Grissom’s The Negro Sings a New Heaven: “It is so easy for the Negro to swing from a major to a minor melody that his music is more often thought of as minor than major, whereas a large percentage of it definitely is major. This may explain the popular theory that he creates unusual harmonies. What he really does is to supply his own harmonies and harmonic background as he sings his melody” (42), Phillips, Romeo Eldridge, “Black Folk Music: Setting the Record Straight,” Music Educators Journal, 60, no. 4 (Dec. 1973): 41–45.
Please see also: Shane White and Graham White. The Sounds of Slavery: Discovering African American History Through Songs, Sermons, and Speech. Boston: Beacon, 2005; “Index of Articles about Religious Music,” Black Music Research Journal, 15, no. 2 (Autumn 1995): 214–218; Sharp, Timothy W. “Halleluja! Spirituals: America’s Original Contribution to the World Sacred Music,” The Choral Journal, 43, no. 8 (March 2003): 95–99; Jones, Arthur C. “The Foundational Influence of Spirituals in African-American Culture: A Psychological Perspective,” Black Research Journal, 24, no. 2 (Autumn 2004): 251–260; Anderson, Iain. “Reworking Images of a Southern Past: The Commemoration of Slave Music After the Civil War,” Studies in Popular Culture, 19, no. 2 (October 1995): 167–183; Peach, Douglas Dowling, “Gullah: The Voice of an Island, by Liz Kelly, Mark Kendree, and Tevin Turner (review),” Journal of American Folklore, 129, no. 511 (Winter 2016): 119–121; Johnson, James Weldon and Rosamond Johnson, The Books of American Negro Spirituals, Boston: DaCapo Press, 2002.
p. 195, “Indian or Chinese ink . . .” and subsequent description of tattoo application, Dye, Ira. “The Tattoos of Early American Seafarers, 1796–1818
.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 133, no. 4 (1989): 520–554. Jeffrey W. Bolster cites Ira Dye in his explication of tattoos in Black Jacks: African American Seamen in the Age of Sail. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997.
p. 196, “Women of color and white women together dominated . . .,” from Cynthia M. Kennedy. Braided Relations, Entwined Lives: The Women of Charleston’s Urban Slave Society. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005.
p. 198, “1837 was a pivotal year . . .” from “Wedding Bonnet,” The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Collection Records, Accession No. 2009.300.1560, https://metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/156289.
Primary Sources
Craft, William and Ellen. Running a Thousand Miles to Freedom. Mineola, NY: Dover Thrift Editions, 2014.
Douglass, Federick. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1995.
Douglass, Frederick and Harriet Jacobs, Austin Steward, William Still, and Booker T. Washington. Slave Narrative Six Pack 3. Enhanced Media Publishing Ebook, 2015.
Interview with Gillam Lowden, Greenwood, SC, June 23, 1937. Interviewer G.L. Summer, ed. Elmer Turnage July 8, 1937. Project 1885, Spartanburg, District 4. Federal Writers’ Project: Slave Narrative Project, Vol. 14, South Carolina, Part 3, Jackson-Quattlebaum: 124. United States Works Progress Administration, Library of Congress, http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/mesn.143.
Interview with Henry Brown, 637 Grove St., Charleston, SC, Slave Narratives: A Folk History of the United States from Interviews with Former Slaves, 1936–1938, Volume XIV, South Carolina Narratives, Part I. Prepared by the Federal Writers’ Project of the Works Progress Administration, Project 1655, interviewer Augustus Ladson, Kindle E-Book.
Interview with Sara Brown, Marion, SC, June 1937. Prepared by Annie Ruth Davis. Project 1885-1. Federal Writers’ Project: Slave Narrative Project, Vol. 14, South Carolina, Part 3, Jackson-Quattlebaum: 124. United States Works Progress Administration, Library of Congress, http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/mesn.137.
“Letter from Hilton to Eliza Williams,” October 8, 1837, Series F: Franklin Cushman’s notebooks, vol. 2: 110, (Elijah Williams Papers, Rhode Island Historical Society).