16. Ch’ien, p. 79.
17. Franz Michael, China Through the Ages: History of a Civilization (1986), p. 48.
18. Mencius, I.A.7.
19. Fairbank and Goldman, pp. 53–54.
20. Quoted in Michael, pp. 49–50.
21. “Giving Away a Throne,” in The Complete Works of Chuang Tzu, translated by Burton Watson (1968), n.p.
22. “Discussion on Making All Things Equal,” in Watson, The Complete Works of Chuang Tzu.
Chapter Sixty-Eight The Macedonian Conquerors
1. Pomeroy et al., pp. 327–328.
2. Scene 1, in Aristophanes, The Birds and Other Plays, translated by David Barrett and Alan H. Sommerstein (2003), p. 221.
3. Scene 3, Ibid., p. 257.
4. J. M. Cook, Persian Empire, p. 212.
5. Plutarch, Artaxerxes, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 2, The Dryden Translation.
6. Xenophon, The Persian Expedition (also known as Anabasis) 1.1, translated by Rex Warner (1972), p. 56.
7. This detail from Ctesias comes to us via Diodorus Siculus; see George Cawkwell’s “Introduction” to the Warner translation of Xenophon, The Persian Expedition, p. 40.
8. Plutarch, Artaxerxes, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 2, The Dryden Translation, p. 646.
9. Xenophon, The Persian Expedition, 1.4.
10. Ibid., pp. 86–87.
11. Ibid., 4.5.
12. Ibid., 4.7.
13. Plutarch, Artaxerxes, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 2, The Dryden Translation, p. 658.
14. Clayton, pp. 201–202.
15. Hellenica, 5.19, in The Works of Xenophon, vol. 2, translated by H. G. Dakyns (1892).
16. Ibid., 5.23.
17. Clayton, p. 203.
18. J. M. Cook, Persian Empire, p. 48.
19. Panegyricus 50, in Isocrates, Isocrates II, translated by Terry L. Papillon (2004), p. 40.
20. Panegyricus 166, in Isocrates, p. 68.
21. Green, p. 14.
22. Ibid., p. 22.
23. Justin, The History, 7.5, in William Stearns Davis, ed., Readings in Ancient History, vol. 1 (Allyn and Bacon, 1912).
24. Green, pp. 23–24.
25. Alexander 6, in Plutarch, Greek Lives.
26. Alexander 3, in Plutarch, Greek Lives.
27. To Philip 15–16, Isocrates, p. 78.
28. Diodorus Siculus, 16.14.
29. Pomeroy et al., p. 389.
30. Justin, History, 8.8.
31. Alexander 10, in Plutarch, Greek Lives.
32. Parts of the story are told by Diodorus Siculus, and by Aristotle in his Politics (translated by Rackham); see also Guy MacLean Rogers, Alexander: The Ambiguity of Greatness (2004), pp. 31–34.
33. Alexander 11, in Plutarch, Greek Lives.
Chapter Sixty-Nine Rome Tightens Its Grasp
1. Livy, Rome and Italy: Books VI–X of The History of Rome from Its Foundation, 6.42, translated by Betty Radice (1982), p. 95.
2. Ibid., 6.42.
3. Edward T. Salmon, The Making of Roman Italy (1982), p. 5.
4. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire 3.24.
5. Mary T. Boatwright et al,. The Romans: From Village to Empire (2004), p. 79.
6. Livy, Rome and Italy, 7.29, p. 135.
7. Ibid., 7.30, pp. 136–137.
8. Ibid., 8.6, pp. 164–165.
9. Ibid., 8.10–11, pp. 171–173.
10. Salmon, p. 40.
11. Livy, Rome and Italy, 8.14, p. 178.
12. Boatwright et al., p. 82.
13. Ibid., p. 84.
14. Diodorus Siculus, 9.9.
15. Soren et al., p. 91.
16. Ibid., pp. 90–91, 128–130.
17. Diodorus Siculus, 20.6–7.
18. Soren et al., p. 92.
19. Livy, Rome and Italy, 10.13, 304–305.
20. Ibid., 10.28, pp. 327–328.
Chapter Seventy Alexander and the Wars of the Successors
1. Green, p. 114.
2. Plutarch, The Life of Alexander the Great, translated by John Dryden (2004), p. 13
3. Green, p. 118; Plutarch, Alexander the Great, p. 13.
4. Diodorus, Siculus, 17.5–6.
5. Ibid., 17.17.
6. Quintus Curtius Rufus, The History of Alexander (lost, summarized by John Yardley), translated by John Yardley (2001), p. 23; also Arrian, The Campaigns of Alexander, 1.12, translated by Aubrey de Selincourt (1971).
7. Arrian, I.15, p. 73.
8. Didodorus Siculus, 17.20; Arrian, 1.16.
9. Arrian, 1.17.
10. Rufus, 3.15–18, p. 27.
11. Arrian, 2.8.
12. Rufus, 3.12, p. 42.
13. Arrian, 2.15, p. 128.
14. Alexander 29, in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 339.
15. G. M. Rogers, pp. 124–145.
16. Arrian, 3.23.
17. G. M. Rogers, p. 135.
18. Arrian, 4.9.
19. Ibid., 5.4, p. 259.
20. Ibid., 5.9, p. 267.
21. Alexander 63, in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 369.
22. Rufus, 9.19.
23. Plutarch, Alexander the Great, p. 64.
24. Ibid., p. 67.
25. Rufus, 10.3.14.
26. Plutarch, Alexander the Great, p. 71.
27. Rufus, 10.6.13.
28. Plutarch, Alexander the Great, p. 72; also Diodorus Siculus, 18 and 19.
29. Rufus, 10.9.1.
30. Ibid., 10.10.7–8.
31. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Charles A. Moore, eds. A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy (1957), p. 198.
32. Vohra, p. 25.
33. Plutarch, Pyrrhus, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 1, The Dryden Translation, p. 520.
34. Plutarch, Demetrius, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 2, The Dryden Translation, p. 480.
35. Plutarch, Pyrrhus, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 1, The Dryden Translation, p. 537.
Chapter Seventy-One The Mauryan Epiphany
1. Keay, p. 88.
2. Thapar, Early India, p. 5.
3. Wolpert, p. 57.
4. Keay, p. 90.
5. Ibid., p. 91.
6. Thapar, Early India, p. 180.
7. Translated by Romila Thapar in Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas (1998), p. 255.
8. Ibid., pp. 255–256.
9. Ibid., p. 256 and Keay, pp. 91–92.
10. Keay, p. 95.
11. Wolpert, p. 64. The story of Mahinda is found in the Dîpavamsa 7, 28–31; see Max Muller’s introduction in Sacred Books of the East, vol. 10: The Dhammapada (1981).
12. Vohra, p. 25.
13. Ibid.
Chapter Seventy-Two First Emperor, Second Dynasty
1. Charles O. Hucker, China’s Imperial Past: An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture (1975), p. 40.
2. Ibid., p. 41.
3. Ch’ien, p. 83.
4. Ibid., p. 123.
5. Ibid., p. 130.
6. Ibid., p. 123.
7. Fairbank and Goldman, p. 56.
8. Hucker, pp. 43–44.
9. Ch’ien, p. 140.
10. Ibid., p. 147.
11. Sima Qian, “The Biography of the Chief Minister of Qin,” in Historical Records, translated by Raymond Dawson (1994), p. 31.
12. Sima Qian, “The Annals of Qin,” in Historical Records, p. 69.
13. Jorge Luis Borges, “The Wall and the Books,” in Daniel Schwartz, The Great Wall of China (2001), p. 10.
14. Ann Paludan, Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial China (1998), pp. 18–19.
15. Ch’ien, p. 155.
16. Arthur Cotterell, The First Emperor of China (1981), p. 28.
17. Ch’ien, p. 156.
18. Ibid., pp. 161–162.
19. Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe, eds., The Cambridge History of China, Volume I: The Ch’in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220 (1986), p. 113.
20. Ibid., p. 117.
21. Sima Qian, Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty I, translated by Burton Watso
n (1993), pp. 74–75.
Chapter Seventy-Three The Wars of the Sons
1. Plutarch, Demetrius, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 2, The Dryden Translation, p. 465.
2. Diodorus Siculus, 21.12.
3. Plutarch, Pyrrhus, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 1, The Dryden Translation, pp. 540–541, and Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 2.43.
4. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 1.5, p. 45.
5. Ibid., 1.7–12.
6. Ibid., 1.20, p. 62.
7. J. H. Thiel, A History of Roman Sea-power before the Second Punic War (1954), p. 63.
8. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 1.21, p. 64.
9. Polybius, The Histories, 1.75, translated by Evelyn Shuckburgh (1889), pp. 83, 85.
10. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 1.58, p. 105.
11. Livy, The War With Hannibal: Books XXI–XXX of The History of Rome from Its Foundation, 21.41, translated by Aubrey de Selincourt (1965), p. 66.
12. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 1. 63, p. 109.
13. Plutarch, Cleomenes, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 2, The Dryden Translation, p. 351.
14. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 5.34, p. 291.
15. Clayton, p. 211.
16. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 5.34, p. 292.
17. Ibid., 15.33, p. 491.
18. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, 12.3.3.
19. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 3.11, p. 189.
20. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 2.1, pp. 111–12.
21. Soren et al., p. 102.
22. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 3.20–21.
23. Livy, The War with Hannibal, 21.1, p. 23.
24. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 3.33, p. 209.
25. Ibid., 3.49.
26. Livy, The War with Hannibal, 21.32, p. 56.
27. Ibid., 21.47, p. 72.
28. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 3.68, p. 237.
29. Livy, The War with Hannibal, 11.57, p. 83.
30. Ibid., 22.7, p. 102.
31. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 3.90, p. 257.
32. Ibid., 3.118, p. 275.
33. Livy, The War With Hannibal, 27.48, p. 493.
34. Ibid., 27.51.
35. Ibid., 30.20, p. 644.
36. Ibid., 30.36, p. 664.
37. Leonard Cottrell, Hannibal: Enemy of Rome (1992), p. 242.
Chapter Seventy-Four Roman Liberators and Seleucid Conquerors
1. Livy, The Dawn of the Roman Empire: Books 31–40 [of The History of Rome from Its Foundation], 33.19, translated by J. C. Yardley (2000), pp. 112–113.
2. Polybius, Rise of the Roman Empire, 18.45, p. 514.
3. Ibid., 18.46, p. 516.
4. Ibid., 3.11, p. 189.
5. Livy, Dawn of the Roman Empire, 36.17, p. 268.
6. Plutarch, Flamininus, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 1, The Dryden Translation, p. 515.
7. The story is found, among other places, in the Maitreyopanishad of the Sama-Veda.
8. Polybius, Histories, 23.7.
9. Livy, Dawn of the Roman Empire, 40.5, p. 486.
10. Polybius, Histories, 27.1.
11. Livy, The History of Rome, vol. 6, translated by E. Roberts (1912), 42.36.
12. Ibid., 42.26.
13. Ibid., 45.12.
14. Josephus, Wars of the Jews, 1.1, in The Works of Josephus, p. 546.
15. John Bright, A History of Israel (1974), pp. 424–425.
16. Ibid., p. 424.
17. 2 Macc. 6:10, Revised Standard Version.
18. 2 Macc. 8:1, 7–9.
19. Josephus, Wars of the Jews, 1.4.
20. Ibid.
21. A. N. Sherwin-White, The Roman Citizenship (1973), p. 42.
Chapter Seventy-Five Between East and West
1. Sima Qian, Records of the Grand Historian, p. 77, 84.
2. Di Cosmo, Ancient China and Its Enemies, p. 157.
3. Ibid., p. 165.
4. Burton Watson, trans., Records of the Grand Historian of China: Translated from the Shih chi of Ssu-ma Ch’ien, vol. 2 (1968), p. 129.
5. Twitchett and Loewe, p. 384.
6. Ibid., p. 386.
7. Sima Qian, Shih chi 9: The Basic Annals of the Empress Lu, in Records of the Grand Historian, p. 267.
8. Sima Qian, Records of the Grand Historian, p. 269.
9. Ibid., p. 270.
10. Ibid., pp. 273–274.
11. Ibid., p. 284.
12. Sima Qian, Shih chi 123, in Watson, Records, vol. 2, p. 264.
13. Hucker, pp. 123–125.
14. Hucker, p. 128.
15. Sima Qian, Shih chi 123, in Watson, Records, vol. 2, p. 264.
16. Ibid., p. 269.
17. T. W. Rhys Davids, trans., The Questions of King Milinda (1963), Book 1, p. 7.
18. Ibid., Book 7, p. 374.
19. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, 13.14.
20. Sima Qian, Shih chi 123, Watson, Records, vol. 2, p. 268.
21. Plutarch, Sylla, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 1, The Dryden Translation, p. 610.
22. Shih chi 123, in Watson, Records, vol. 2, p. 276.
Chapter Seventy-Six Breaking the System
1. Soren et al., p. 115.
2. Livy, The History of Rome, 6.42.23.
3. Plutarch, Marcus Cato, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 1, The Dryden Translation, p. 478.
4. Ibid., p. 478.
5. Philip Matyszak, Chronicle of the Roman Republic (2003), p. 120.
6. Plutarch, Marcus Cato, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 1, The Dryden Translation, p. 479.
7. Polybius, Histories, 38.3–11.
8. Ibid. 39, p. 530.
9. M. I. Finley, Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology (1980), p. 97.
10. Diodorus Siculus, 34.1–4.
11. Ibid., 34.16.
12. Ibid., 34.48.
13. Finley Hooper, Roman Realities (1979), p. 155.
14. Appian, The Civil Wars, 1.1, translated by Oliver J. Thatcher in The Library of Original Sources, vol. 3: The Roman World (1901).
15. Plutarch, Tiberius Gracchus, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 2, The Dryden Translation, pp. 357–358.
16. Ibid., p. 361.
17. Ibid., p. 369.
18. Appian, Civil Wars, 1.2.
19. Diodorus Siculus, 34.21.
20. Ibid., 34.23.
21. Plutarch, Caius Gracchus, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 2, The Dryden Translation, pp. 381–383.
Chapter Seventy-Seven The Problems of Prosperity
1. The Jugurthine War 41, in Sallust, The Jugurthine War/The Conspiracy of Cataline, translated by S. A. Handford (1963), p. 77.
2. The Jugurthine War 8, in Sallust, p. 41.
3. The Jugurthine War 14, in Sallust, p. 47.
4. The Jugurthine War 28, in Sallust, p. 64.
5. The Jugurthine War 37, in Sallust, p. 73.
6. Marius 28, in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 148.
7. Marius 32 in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 152.
8. Cicero, On the Commonwealth, 3.41, in On the Commonwealth and On the Laws, translated and edited by James E. G. Zetzel (1999), p. 74.
9. Justin 38.4.13, quoted in Salmon, p. 128.
10. Salmon, p. 129.
11. Marius 33 in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 153.
12. Sulla 6 in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 179.
13. Marius 34 in Plutarch, Greek Lives, pp. 153–154.
14. Marius 35 in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 154.
15. Sulla 9, in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 185.
16. Twitchett and Loewe, p. 410.
17. Shi chi 109, in Watson, Records, vol. II, pp. 142–143.
18. Shi chi 123, in Watson, Records, vol. 2, p. 282.
19. Ibid., 123, p. 284.
20. Han shu 96, quoted in Twitchett and Loewe, p. 410.
21. Marius 43, in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 164.
22. Sulla 22 in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 199.
23. Sulla 30, in Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 208.
24. Sulla 31, in
Plutarch, Greek Lives, p. 210.
25. Hooper, p. 215.
26. Ibid., p. 223.
Chapter Seventy-Eight New Men
1. Carlin A. Barton, “The Scandal of the Arena,” Representations 27 (1989), p. 2.
2. Tertullian, De spectaculis 22, in Barton, p. 1.
3. Crassus 8, in Plutarch, Fall of the Roman Republic: Six Lives by Plutarch, translated by Rex Warner (1972), p. 122.
4. Crassus 9, in Plutarch, Fall of the Roman Republic, p. 123.
5. Appian, Civil Wars, 1.118.
6. Crassus 9, in Plutarch, Fall of the Roman Republic, p. 124.
7. Appian, Civil Wars, 1.119.
8. Crassus 11, in Plutarch, Fall of the Roman Republic, p. 127.
9. Appian, Civil Wars, 1.121.
10. Crassus 11, in Plutarch, Fall of the Roman Republic, p. 127.
11. Crassus 12, in Plutarch, Fall of the Roman Republic, p. 128.
12. Hooper, p. 226.
13. Ibid., p. 121.
14. Ibid., p. 120.
15. Pompey 48 and Caesar 14, in Plutarch, Fall of the Roman Republic, pp. 207, 257.
16. Caesar, The Conquest of Gaul, 2.35, translated by S. A. Handford, revised by Jane F. Gardner (1982), p. 73.
17. Caesar 20, in Plutarch, Fall of the Roman Republic, p. 263.
18. Caesar 21, in Plutarch, Fall of the Roman Republic, p. 265.
19. Acton Griscom, The Historia Regum Britannia of Geoffrey of Monmouth (1929), p. 221.
20. Caesar, Conquest of Gaul, 5.14, p. 111.
21. Ibid., 4.36, p. 103.
22. Plutarch, quoted in Hooper, p. 273.
23. Caesar 28, in Plutarch, Fall of the Roman Republic, p. 271.
24. Caesar 32–33, in Plutarch, Fall of the Roman Republic, p. 276.
25. Caesar 35, in Plutarch, Fall of the Roman Republic, p. 279.
26. Plutarch, Antony, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 2, The Dryden Translation, p. 487.
27. Clayton, p. 216.
28. Pompey 79–80, Plutarch, Fall of the Roman Republic, pp. 240–241.
29. Harriet I. Flower, ed., The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic (2004), p. 328.
30. Nicolaus of Damascus, Life of Augustus, translated by Clayton M. Hall (1923).
31. Suetonius, The Deified Julius Caesar 82, in Lives of the Caesars, translated by Catharine Edwards (2000), p. 39.
Chapter Seventy-Nine Empire
1. Suetonius, The Deified Julius Caesar 83, in Lives of the Caesars, p. 39.
2. Plutarch, Marcus Brutus, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 2, The Dryden Translation, p. 586.
3. Ibid., p. 587.
4. Plutarch, Antony, in Plutarch’s Lives, vol. 2, The Dryden Translation, pp. 490–491.
5. Ibid., p. 491.
6. Ibid., p. 492.
7. Suetonius, The Deified Augustus 16, in Lives of the Caesars, p. 49.
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