by Julie Greene
migration to Canal Zone, 32, 126, 309, 340, 341
and mobility, 124–25, 146, 148, 153, 154, 158, 255, 343
and nationalism, 369
officials’ negative views of, 60, 124, 135, 141, 142, 145–46, 158, 160, 161, 225
penitentiary prisoners, 140
as policemen, 87, 139, 281–83
pride of, 155
racial hostility against, 124, 143–44
and religious organizations, 156–57
replaced by European laborers, 52
segregation of, 65–66, 104, 170, 225
in silver and gold system, 64–66, 68, 95–96, 124, 129, 164
as skilled workers, 93–94, 95, 126–30, 144
songs of, 131–32, 156, 260–62
and Spanish workers, 52, 168–70, 172, 176, 178, 179
use of term, 405n36
white workers replaced by, 93–97, 99, 122, 127–28, 172, 176, 178, 179
women, 228, 254–65
work habits of, 144–58; see also specific islands
Weyl, Walter, 181
White, Edward Douglass, 275
Wilder, Laura Ingalls, 336, 365
Williams, Henry, 33, 100, 106–7
Williams, William Appleman, 6, 10
Wilson, Woodrow:
appointees of, 57, 183, 368
and Cocoa Grove riots, 331–32
and election of 1912, 102
and Gamboa Dike, 343–44, 346
and Goethals, 57, 368
and government expansion, 184
and Jim Crow segregation, 416n61
and Panama-Pacific exposition, 361
Thanksgiving Day message of, 346–47
and World War I, 337, 368
“Woman a Heavy Load” (song), 262
women, 226–66
African American, 145
bias against, 109
citizenship of, 108
and disease, 236, 237, 257
displacement of, in canal completion, 339–40
and divorce, 250–54, 262–63
and domestic violence, 247–48, 263, 297
employment of, 107–8
empowerment of, 112
government control of, 112
hospital nurses, 111–16, 213, 214
and housing, 226, 230, 231–39, 245
isolation of, 228–29
moving to canal project, 34, 150, 152–53, 197, 198, 226, 229, 230, 241
numbers of, 256–57
passing as men, 255–56
and respectability, 245–49, 265, 289–97, 315
and servants, 212, 228, 236, 239–40, 255, 257, 259
social activities of, 212–13, 221, 238–39, 240, 241–45, 339
and social hierarchies, 229, 234–37, 243, 245–46, 249
and voting rights, 227
West Indian, 228, 254–65
wives remaining in United States, 252–53
as workers’ wives, 81, 122, 211–12, 226–29, 230–34, 238, 265, 269
working and living conditions of, 107–16, 121, 152, 212, 212–13, 222–23, 231, 234, 239–41, 257, 265–68
and YMCA, 118, 212, 242
“zone” of, 72
Wood, R. E., 51
workers:
as adventurous, 30, 52, 84–85
craftsmen/artisans, 46, 126, 127, 128, 144
deportation of, 75, 77, 88, 273, 277, 308
displacement of, in canal completion, 339–42
dissatisfaction of, 42, 60–62, 75, 78–79, 89, 215–16
ethnic and national varieties of, 47–48
forgotten, 2, 363, 364–65, 382, 411n67
hierarchies of, 64–66, 83–84, 85–86
housing for, 26, 67, 215, 218, 221
injured on the job, 92, 163, 165–66
leisure time of, 85, 116–21, 157, 314
management of, 46, 57
in manual labor, see laborers
migration to Canal Zone, 4, 29–35, 340
nicknames for, 79
perks and privileges of, 69, 82, 85, 86, 92, 110, 122
preparations for departure of, 31
recruitment of, 29–30, 34–35, 47–52, 85, 86, 99, 100, 213, 340
returning home, 42, 43, 78, 86, 122, 154, 340
as roughnecks, 78–85, 291–92
segregation of, 47; see also segregation
skilled, 46, 52, 82–85, 86, 89, 93–94, 96, 100–101, 105, 122, 126–30, 144
sources of, 4, 5, 47
strikes and labor unrest, 48, 62, 94, 368–69
and unions, see labor unions
U.S. government contracts with, 30
wages of, see silver and gold system
white-collar, 79, 81, 127
white male supervisors of, 17, 81
white U.S. citizens, 46, 47, 52, 63, 81, 85, 92, 96, 97
wives of, see women
workday of, 46, 78, 92
working conditions of, 75–78, 85, 89, 163–68, 172–73, 213–15, 222
Workman newspaper, 369
World War I:
economic impact of, 343, 350
onset of, 2, 38, 336, 344, 345, 367
and Panama-Pacific exposition, 336–38, 353
U.S. entry into, 183, 367
War Industries Board, 368
World War II, 371
Yates, William, 96
YMCA, 69, 107, 117–20, 212, 242
Zaldivar, Francisco, 300–301
Zonians, 371–72, 375, 378
Zorinsky, Edward, 376, 377