by Geza Vermes
Trever, J.and n.
tribes
tribunals
Trimph of Righteousness
trumpets
Tryphon (Syrian general)
Two Spirits doctrine
Two Ways, The
Ullendorf, Edward
Ulrich, Eugene.
units of the Community
VanderKam, J. C.
vengeance
Vermes, Geza.
1977 lectureand n.
articles....
DJDXXVI
DJDXXXVI
publications ...and ..,
Vespasian (Roman general)
virginity, proof of
vows and oaths
Wacholder, Ben Zion
war
prophecies regarding
Temple Scroll laws regarding
War, Rule of (Book of War)
War Scroll
Cave 1 manuscripts
Cave 4 manuscripts
poem in
on Temple worship
Warning, A Parable of
Ways of Righteousness
Weeks, Feast of (Pentecost)
Weinfeld, M.
well
White, S.
Wicked and the Holy
Wicked Priest(s)
Groningen hypothesis and
harassment of Teacher of Righteousness
identity
wine
Wisdom, Book of
Wisdom literature
Beatitudes
Bless, My Soul
Exhortation to Seek Wisdom
Fight against Evil Spirits
Leader’s Lament
Parable of Warning
Sapiential Didactic Work A
Sapiential Work (i)
Sapiential Work (ii)
Sapiential Work (iii): Ways of Righteousness
Sapiential Work, Instruction-like Composition
Songs of the Sage
The Seductress
The Two Ways
Wise, Michael.
witnesses
Wolters, A.
women.
childbirth
excavated bones of
and food
menstruation
oath of
see also marriage; sexual morality
Woude, A. S. van der..
Wright Baker, Professor H.
Wright, G. E., In.
Xerxes, King of Persia
Yadin, Yigael.and
Yannai, Alexander see Jannaeus, Alexander
Yardeni, Ada
Yavan
see also Greece
Yohanan
Zadok, sons ofand
Teacher of Righteousness and and
Zealot theory
Zealots
hidden treasure
Zechariah.
Zedekiah Apocryphon
Zephaniah, Commentary on
Zion Psalm
Zodiacal Calendar with a brontologion
THE STORY OF PENGUIN CLASSICS
Before 1946 ...‘Classics’ are mainly the domain of academics and students, without readable editions for everyone else. This all changes when a little-known classicist, E. V. Rieu, presents Penguin founder Allen Lane with the translation of Homer’s Odyssey that he has been working on and reading to his wife Nelly in his spare time.
1946 The Odyssey becomes the first Penguin Classic published, and promptly sells three million copies. Suddenly, classic books are no longer for the privileged few.
1950s Rieu, now series editor, turns to professional writers for the best modern, readable translations, including Dorothy L. Sayers’s Inferno and Robert Graves’s The Twelve Caesars, which revives the salacious original.
1960s The Classics are given the distinctive black jackets that have remained a constant throughout the series’s various looks. Rieu retires in 1964, hailing the Penguin Classics list as ‘the greatest educative force of the 20th century’.
1970s A new generation of translators arrives to swell the Penguin Classics ranks, and the list grows to encompass more philosophy, religion, science, history and politics.
1980s The Penguin American Library joins the Classics stable, with titles such as The Last of the Mohicans safeguarded. Penguin Classics now offers the most comprehensive library of world literature available.
1990s The launch of Penguin Audiobooks brings the classics to a listening audience for the first time, and in 1999 the launch of the Penguin Classics website takes them online to a larger global readership than ever before.
The 21st Century Penguin Classics are rejacketed for the first time in nearly twenty years. This world famous series now consists of more than 1300 titles, making the widest range of the best books ever written available to millions - and constantly redefining the meaning of what makes a ‘classic’.
The Odyssey continues ...
1
For the story of my personal involvement with the Dead Sea Scrolls, see Providential Accidents: An Autobiography, SCM Press, London, and Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, Md., 1988.
2
E. L. Sukenik, Megillot genuzot, 1, Jerusalem, 1948; W. F. Albright, Bulletin of the American Schools for Oriental Research 110 (April 1948), 1-3; G. E. Wright, ‘A Sensational Discovery’, Biblical Arcbaeologist (May 1948), 21-3.
3
Cf. the interview with the discoverer reported by John C. Trever, The Dead Sea Scrolls: A Personal Account, Grand Rapids, 1979, 191-4.
4
Cf. Observations sur le Manuel de discipline découvert près de la Mer Morte, Paris, 1951 His major synthesis in English is The Essene Writings from Qumran, Oxford, 1961. For the latest survey, see G. Vermes and Martin Goodman, The Essenes According to the Classical Sources, Sheffield, 1989.
5
Archaeology and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Oxford, 1973.
6
Les Manuscrits du désert de Juda,Tournai and Paris, 1953; Discovery in the Judean Desert, New York, 1956.
7
J. T. Milik, Dix ans de découvertes dans le désert de Juda, Paris, 1957 (English translation: Ten Years of Discovery in the Wilderness of Judaea, London, 1959); F. M. Cross, The Ancient Library of Qumran and Modern Biblical Studies, New York, 1958; R. de Vaux, op. cit. (in note 5 above).
8
The Dead Sea Scrolls of St Mark’s Monastery, I, New Haven, 1950; II/2, New Haven, 1951.
9
The Dead Sea Scrolls of the Hebrew University, Jerusalem, 1954-5.
10
N. Avigad and Y. Yadin, A Genesis Apocryphon, Jerusalem, 1956. See now J. C. Greenfield and E. Qimron, ‘The Genesis Apocryphon Col. XII’, in Studies in Qumran Aramaic, edited by T. Muraoka (Abr-Nahrain Suppl. I), Louvain, 1992, 70-77.
11
Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, I: Qumran Cave I, Oxford, 1955.
12
M. Baillet, J. T. Milik and R. de Vaux, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert of Jordan,III: Les petites grottes de Qumrân, Oxford, 1962.
13
J. A. Sanders, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert of Jordan,IV: The Psalms Scroll of Qumran Cave II (IIQPsa), Oxford, 1965.
14
J. M. Allegro and A. A. Anderson, Discoveries in the JudaeanDesert ofJordan,V: I (4Q158-186), Oxford, 1968. A re-edition of this volume by George J. Brooke is planned.
15
Khalil Iskandar Sahin, familiarly known as Kando, a cobbler cum antique dealer, had been the principal middle man between the Bedouin discoverers of thousands of fragments and Roland de Vaux in the 1950s.
16
Megillat ha-Miqdash I-III, Jerusalem, 1977 (English translation: The Temple Scroll I-III, Jerusalem, 1983). See also E. Qimron, The Temple Scroll: A Critical Edition with Extensive Reconstructions, Beer-Sheva/Jerusalem, 1996.
17
Members of the original editorial team spent a great deal of time working in Jerusalem in the 1950s, but were subsequently disbanded, most of them occupying full-time teaching posts in Britain, France and the United States.
18
J. P. M. van der Ploeg, A. S. van der Woude and B. Jongeling, Le Targum deJobde la grotte XI de Qumrân, Leiden, 1971; D. N. Freedman and K. A. Matthews, The Paleo-Hebrew Leviticus Scroll (II QpaleoLev), Winona Lake, 1985.
19
In the 1970s, only J. T. Milik remained productive - The Books of Enoch: Aramaic Fragments of Qumran Cave 4, Oxford, 1976; Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, VI: (4Q128-57), Oxford, 1977 - before he, too, entered a state of hibernation. By 1991, he was persuaded to relinquish all his unpublished documents, which were re-assigned to new editors.
20
The Dead Sea Scrolls: Qumran in Perspective, London, 1977, 24 (originally the 1977 Margaret Harris Lectures delivered at the University of Dundee).
21
A Preliminary Edition of the Unpublished Dead Sea Scrolls: The Hebrew and Aramaic Texts from Cave 4, Biblical Archaeology Society, Washington, 1991. Two further volumes appeared in 1992 and 1995-
22
A Preliminary Concordance to tbe Hebrew and Aramaic Fragments from Qumran CavesII to X (distributed by H. Stegemann, Göttingen, 1988).
23
The following brief account of the Huntington Library’s involvement with the Dead Sea Scrolls is based on documentary evidence kindly provided by its President, Robert A. Skotheim. In 1982, Elizabeth Hay Bechtel, a renowned Californian philanthropist and Scroll Maecenas, deposited at the Huntington a set of negatives of Qumran manuscripts. These had been taken in 1980 by Robert Schlosser, the chief photographer of the library, for whom Mrs Bechtel obtained permission from the Jerusalem Department of Antiquities to photograph all the Dead Sea Scrolls. Two series of pictures were produced, one for the Ancient Biblical Manuscript Center founded by Mrs Bechtel in Claremont, California, and another for herself. The latter ended up in a ‘climatized’ vault specially constructed at the Huntington with the help of a Bechtel grant of $50,000. In 1986, a year before her death, Mrs Bechtel donated her Scroll photographs to the Huntington. Paragraph 9 of the agreement made in April 1982 specifies that materials on which no restrictive policy is applied by Mrs Bechtel ‘will be made available to use by scholars in accordance with the Huntington’s general policies for its own materials’. No such restriction was ever conveyed by her to the trustees of the library. Bill Moffett became director of the Library in 1990. It was on the basis of clause 9 of the agreement that he proposed to the trustees the opening of the Huntington’s Qumran photographs to all qualified users of the library.
Bill Moffett, the ‘liberator of the Scrolls’, died on 20 February 1995 at the age of sixty-two.
24
Robert H. Eisenman and James M. Robinson, A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls, I-II, Washington, 1991. The quality of many of these pictures leaves much to be desired, but others are serviceable.
25
Patrick W. Skehan, Eugene Ulrich and Judith E. Sanderson, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, IX: Qumran Cave 4, IV, Palaeo-Hebrew and Greek Biblical Manuscripts, Oxford, 1992.
26
Cf. Emanuel Tov, ‘The Unpublished Qumran Texts from Caves 4 and II’, JJS 43 (1992), 101-36.
27
The claim that several minute Greek scraps from Cave 7 represent the New Testament is unsubstantiated. Cf. below, pp. 472-3.
28
It is suggested that the Aramaic fragments of 4Q550 derive from a proto-Esther.
29
4Q242-6 testify to the existence of a non-canonical Daniel cycle.
30
The exception is the Damascus Document, well attested in Caves 4, 5 and 6, but previously known from two incomplete medieval manuscripts found in the Cairo Genizah, and first published by S. Schechter as Documents of Jewish Sectaries, I: Fragments of a Zadokite Work, Cambridge, 1910; repr. with a Prolegomenon by J. A. Fitzmyer (Ktav, 1970). For a better edition see Magen Broshi, The Damascus Document Reconsidered, Jerusalem, 1992.
31
‘The Development of the Jewish Scripts’, in The Bible and the Ancient Near East: Essays in Honor of W. F. Albright, Garden City, NY, 1961, 133-202.
32
. Cf. O. R. Sellers, ‘Radiocarbon Dating of Cloth from the ‘Ain Feshkha Cave’, BASOR 123 (1951), 22-4.
33
G. Bonani et al., ‘Radiocarbon Dating of the Dead Sea Scrolls’, ‘Atiqot 20 (1991), 25-32.
34
A. J. T. Jull et al., ‘Radiocarbon Dating of Scrolls and Linen Fragments from the Judean Desert’, Radiocarbon 37 (1995), 11-19. The quotation appears on p. 17.
35
. Cf. most recently in The Essenes According to the Classical Sources, Sheffield, 1089, 12-23. The co-author of this volume, Martin Goodman, has recently questioned the use of the evidence by Josephus to prove the Essene identity of the sect, arguing that Josephus never presents a full picture of the Jewish scene of his time and that consequently he may have referred to a group merely similar to the Essenes. Cf. ‘A Note on the Qumran Sectarians, the Essenes and Josephus’, JJS 46 (1995), 161-6. Despite my admiration for his learning, I exceptionally beg to differ.
36
For a fuller argument, see below, pp. 46-8.
37
G. Vermes, The Dead Sea Scrolls: Qumran in Perspective, London, 1994, 117.
38
For a major restatement of the whole subject, see Emanuel Tov, Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible, Minneapolis-Assen/Maastricht, 1992.
39
Cf. ‘Biblical Proof-texts in Qumran Literature’, JSS 34 (1989), 493-508. It should be noted, however, that the Damascus Document quotes also the Book of Jubilees and a work attributed to the Patriarch Levi. It is unclear what their status was.
40
Cf. J. T. Milik, The Books of Enoch: Aramaic Fragments of Qumran Cave 4, Oxford, 1976.
41
Cf. E. Schürer, G. Vermes, F. Millar and M. Goodman, The History of the Jewish People in the Age ofJesusChrist, III, Edinburgh, 1986, 250-68.
42
Cf. ‘Historical Texts C-E, 40331-333’, ed. J. A. Fitzmyer, DJD, XXXVI, 281-9.
43
Cf. ‘Qumran Forum Miscellanea II: The so-called King Jonathan Fragment (40448)’, JJS 44 (1993), 294-300.
44
. For a more detailed exposition, see Chapter III below.
45
Cf. War 11, 567; III, 11, 19.
46
Cf. War 11, 152-3.
47
Cf. F. García Martinez, ‘Qumran Origins and Early History: A Groningen Hypothesis’, Folia Orientalia 25 (1988), 113-36; F. García Martinez and A. S. van der Woude, ‘A Groningen Hypothesis of Qumran Origins and Early History’, RQ 14 (1989-90), 521-42.
48
G. R. Driver, The Judaean Scrolls: The Problem and a Solution, Oxford, 1965; C. Roth, The Historical Background of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Oxford, 1958.
49
‘The Problem of Origin and Identification of the Dead Sea Scrolls’, Proceedings ofthe American Philosophical Society 124/1 (1980), 1-24; ‘Who Hid the Dead Sea Scrolls?’, BA 48 (1982), 68-82 ; ‘Khirbet Qumran and the Manuscripts of the Judaean Wilderness: Observations on the Logic of their Investigation’, JNES 49 (1990), 103-14. For a criticism of the Golb thesis, see Timothy H. Lim, ‘The Qumran Scrolls: Two Hypotheses’, Studies in Religion 21/4 (1992), 455-66.
50
Who Wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls? - The Search for the Meaning of the Qumran Manuscripts, Scribner, New York/London, 1995. This volume repeats a completely misconceived attack on the Oxford Centre for Hebrew and Jewish Studies and on myself as director of the Centre’s Forum for Qumran Research, although the facts misinterpreted by Professor Golb (first in The Qumran Chronicle 2/1, 1992, 3-25) have been set out correctly by G. Vermes and P. Alexander, ‘Norman Golb and Modern History’ (ibid., 2/2, 1993, 153-6, with a correction in the same periodical 4/1-2, 1994, 74).
51
At the Scrolls Symposium held at the Library of Congress in Washington on 21-2 April 1993, Magen Broshi, Director of the Shrine of the Book at the Israel
Museum in Jerusalem, delivered a powerful rebuttal of the Golb conjecture as well as the speculative theory advanced at another conference, held in New York in December 1992, by Pauline Donceel-Voûte, in whose view Qumran was a winter villa built for wealthy inhabitants of Jerusalem and the room which de Vaux identified as a scriptorium a dining hall (see ‘Coenaculum’, Res Orientales IV (1992), 61-84). Against the latter theory, see R. Reich, ‘A Note on the Function of Room 30 (the “Scriptorium”) at Khirbet Qumran’, JJS 46 (1995), 157-60, For P. Donceel-Voûte the Qumran complex constitutes a country estate, a villa rustica (‘Les ruines de Qumrân réinterprétées’, Archaeologia 298 (1994), 24-35), and the same theory is propounded by Yizhar Hirschfeld (‘Early Roman Manor Houses in Judea and the Site of Khirbet Qumran’, Journal of Near Eastern Studies 57 (1998), 161-89). According to A. Crown and L. Cansdale, Qumran was a luxurious hostelry for merchants (‘Qumran: Was it an Essene Settlement?’, BAR 20, No. 5 (1994), 24-35, 73-8). The mainstream opinion that the ruins are the remains of an Essene religious settlement is forcefully maintained by M. Broshi in ‘The Archaeology of Qumran: A Reconsideration’ and ‘Was Qumran, indeed, a Monastery?’, in Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls, Sheffield Academic Press (2002), 198-210, 259-73. For the latest and very competent archaeological account see Jodi Magness, The Archaeology of Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Grand Rapids, 2002.
In January 1996, two Israeli archaeologists investigated man-made caves close to the settlement which, in their opinion, were used as sleeping quarters by members of the sect. See M. Broshi and H. Eshel, ‘How and Where Did the Qumranites Live?’, Dead Sea Discoveries 6 (1999), 328-48.
52
Cf. e.g. John Strugnell, ‘Moses Pseudepigrapha at Qumran’, in Archaeology and History in the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. Lawrence H. Schiffman (Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha, Supplement, Series 8, Sheffield, 1990, 221).
53
‘Hebrew Biblical Manuscripts from the Judaean Desert: Their Contribution to Textual Criticism’, JJS 39 (1988), 10-19.
54
It may also be wondered why the librarians of Jerusalem should have chosen such a distant place to hide their manuscripts when equally inaccessible caves could have been found closer to home?