The verse uses the compound syllable ‘dv’ in various ways to highlight the dualities overcome by Viṣṇucitta.
I.78 Like many of Śrī Kṛṣṇadevarāya’s vacanams, this prose passage is filled with pairs of rhyming words, especially in the section highlighting the various philosophical schools (cf. III.8). Cited and critiqued here are following groups: Cārvākas or Materialists (hetu-vādam), Alchemists (dhātu-vādam), Vaiśeṣikas or Atomists (kāṇādambu, after their founder Kaṇāda), Sāṁkhyans (kāpilambu, after the sage Kapila), Pūrva-Mīmāṁsans, and Vyākaranis or Grammarians.
The story of Jaḍa Bharata is found in the Viṣṇu Purāṇa as well as Canto V of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa. Bharata was a wise and ancient king of the Solar Dynasty (sūrya-vaṃsam), reborn as a strong-bodied but rather quiet brahman who, unbeknownst to his family, was already a fully realized being. Taking him for a dull brute, they called him jaḍa or stupid (cf. Note I.2). He was employed by King Rāhūgaṇu of Sauvīra as one of his four palanquin bearers, but due to his great adherence to ahiṁsa (non-violence) he constantly avoided stepping on worms and insects by jumping and jerking while carrying the load. Angered by this unpleasantness the king scolded him and asked ‘What’s wrong with you?’ to which Jaḍa Bharata replied ‘Who am I and who are you?’ and proceeded to enlighten the king about the true nature of reality.
For a Jain account of this story in which Bharata is a cakravartin who attains mokṣa, see Padmanabha Jaini’s article ‘Jina Ṛṣabha as an avatāra of Viṣṇu’ in Bulletin of the School of Oriental & African Studies, Vol XL, part 2, pp. 321–337.
I.79 Viṣṇucitta is referred to here as yogīśvaruḍu, the ultimate yogi. In other instances he is called a mahā-muni, great seer, niṣṭha-nidhi, treasury of devotion, etc. Exalted appellations such as these become quite common throughout the remainder of the text (cf. I.84, IV.15, IV.32).
I.80–82 Some of the culinary terms used in these scrumptious descriptions of seasonal meals are: crispy black lentil chips (vadiyamulu), dried vegetable stir-fries (varugulu), jaggery-flavored broths (tiyyani cārulu), sweet and savoury porridges (timmanambulu, palucani ambaḷulu), sweet cakes (rasāvaḷulu from atirasamulu = arisĕlu, see II.96–97), tender green mangoes (vaḍa piṇḍĕlu, see Brown 678), green vegetables flavoured with mustard powder (āvan cigurkŏnu paccaḷḷu) and pickled fruits (ūruṅgāyalu).
‘sizzling’ is used for the onomatopoeic phrase cuyyanu nāda, literally ‘making a sound that goes cuyyi’.
I.83 Saturdays (śanivāram) are considered auspicious by Vaiṣṇavas. ‘holy river’ is simply referred to here as nadi. ippa-piṇḍi is flour made from the seeds of the Butter Tree or Mahua Tree. A mixture of coarse flour and oil is used as an exfoliating soap to cleanse and moisturize the body.
I.84 Here again the Tamil Divya Prabandham is referenced by name (cf. I.56). ‘sacred stories of Viṣṇu’ is nagendra-śayānu puṇya kathalu.
Interestingly, Viṣṇucitta speaks in Sanskrit here, possibly as a lingua franca that would have been understood by all the visiting devotees (cf. IV.6 where the speakers are gods).
CHAPTER II
MADHURA
II.1 Each chapter (āśvāsam) begins with an invocatory verse; these poems, however, do not rise to the poetic level of I.1.
The exact instance in which Viṣṇu returns the riches of the gods is unclear. The term kramaṇa is glossed by TKR 93 as daṇḍa-yātra, an invasion or campaign, in which case the appellation could refer to any of Viṣṇu’s ten avatāras. In the case that kramaṇa is taken to be pādākramaṇam, the term is certainly in reference to Viṣṇu as Vāmana when he killed the demon king Bali by stepping on his head.
II.3 This is the first of several sīsa padyams (cf. II.30, V.51 and VI.105) that use a repeated phrase in each of the first four couplets. In this case it is the rhetorical ‘In what city?’ (evīṭan).
This reference to Sugriva (kapi-vara) is taken from Chapter 41 in the Kiṣkindha Kāṇḍa of the Rāmāyaṇa when Sugrīva sends troops to the south in search of Sīta. Compare to IV.41.18b-19a ‘tato hema-mayam divyam muktā maṇi vibhūṣitam| yuktam kavāṭam Pāṇḍyānām gatā drakṣyatha vānarāḥ’.
The last line of the poem employs a sound play that embeds the name ‘Madhura’ in a Sanskrit compound—sāndra-druma-dhura. Madhura is referred to here as dakṣiṇa (southern) in order to distinguish it from Mathura in north India, the traditional birthplace of Kṛṣṇa.
II.4 Tripura (literally ‘three cities’) was a mythical city built for the asuras by the architect Maya. The three cities made of iron, silver and gold were built on the earth, sky and heaven respectively and set in perpetual motion. Tripura could only be defeated by a single arrow that could pierce through all three cities in one straight shot. The devas beseeched Lord Śiva to destroy the demon city, and he did so by using Mount Meru as his bow. For a rich account of this story see Śrīnātha’s Bhīma-khaṇḍamu in NRS 120–127.
In 1840 the British East India company razed the ancient fort and filled in the city moat. The present-day Veli streets mark the limits of the old city.
II.6 The River Gaṅga is known as tripathaga (‘moving in three paths’) because it flows in heaven, on earth, and underground, known as Mandākini, Bhāgīrathi and Bhogavati respectively. There are eight kinds of bhogas (enjoyments), namely: home (gṛham), bed (sayya), clothes (vastram), jewellery (ābharaṇam), women (stri), flowers (puṣpam), betel leaf (tāmbūlam) and finally fragrance (gandham), hence Bhogavati as the River of Perfume. In addition, bhoga can simply mean snake or snake hood, and therefore Bhogavati is also the name given to the capital city of the nāga realm.
The alaṅkāra used here is known as nirukti or derivational.
II.7 gārutmatamulu or gāruḍamulu are dark green emeralds. Both terms can also mean ‘of or relating to the eagle Garuḍa’. These emeralds are also known to be an antidote for snake venom.
II.8 This image is based on the ancient science of alchemy (rasa-vādam, cf. I.78) through which practioners could transform iron into gold using the juice from special plants.
II.9 The River Gaṅga flows around Amarāvati like a moat and is likened to the white cloth that wrestlers wrap around their waists (kāsĕ). The Madhura cannon barrels (dañcanapu cetulu, literally ‘cannon hands’) seem to slip under this cloth (tūr e agān or dūr e agān).
II.10 uduṭu gubbalu are large ornamental knobs that protrude from the city gate; they are shaped like lotus buds and made out of metal. Here they are intended to be compared to the breasts of a young woman.
II.11 Even though the attendants know that pearls only come from the ocean, the image is so powerful that they are led to believe otherwise (ākaram-abhramb-ani-(y)aṇḍrugāka-udadhi takkan puṭṭune muttĕmul).
II.12 The silk textiles are described here as nija-dvīpa (‘from their islands’), which may refer to maritime trade with Indonesia, or other seafaring regions of Southeast Asia, Africa or Europe.
II.14 Rāga Megharañjani and other seasonal monsoon rāgas are believed to summon rain clouds (cf. V.145, see my translation in Awaaz, South Asian Journal of Arts, Brown University, Spring 2009).
II.15 The gods are distinguished from mortals by their lack of perspiration, their feet not touching the ground and their unblinking eyes. Amarāvati is here referred to as animiṣa paṭṭaṇambu ‘City of the Unblinking Gods’ which is significant as it contrasts with Lakṣmi’s playful eyes (kannulu keḷiki). Here the fluttering flags are her eyelids and the lotus-bud cupolas her eyes, which occasionally appear to shut (mūyagā balĕn).
The women in this verse are also referred to as Lakṣmi. VVS 73 and TKR 104 offer reverse interpretations of the two terms nija-lakṣmi and tadīya-lakṣmi.
II.16 In Hindu astronomy the sapta-ṛṣis or Seven Sages form a constellation identical to Ursa Major, or the Big Dipper. Their wives are believed to be the constellation Kṛttika, or the Pleiades, who lovingly nursed the infant son of Śiva. For a rich desc
ription of these sages, see Canto VI, particularly verse VI.34, of Kāḷidāsa’s Kumārasaṁbhava in Heifetz (1985) 82–87.
kāṭuka is usually produced from lamp soot (cf. I.6), but here the women allow lighting to strike and blacken their metal plates.
II.17 This is one of the most complex metaphors in the text. The image is based on the old design of wooden South India homes. madana cetulu which can mean ‘excited hands’ is also an architectural term that applies to supportive posts or pillars made of wood. The kuruñju or braces for these posts extend up to the roof like fingers. The Madhura mansions are compared to Lakṣmi (purī-gṛha-lakṣmi) being led to her husband Viṣṇu whose feet are the sky (viṣṇu-pada). The rooftops are likened to the bride’s friends, their cīras are the mansion flags and their whispering is compared to the pigeons that inhabit the rafters. The incense is not only sweet but dense so as to make the room dark, allowing couples to consummate their marriage. This beautiful metaphor foreshadows Goda’s marriage to Raṅganātha in Chapter VI. My thanks to Professor P. Ramanarasimham for his insightful assistance with this verse.
II.19–23 These five poems describe the beautiful puṣpa-lāvikalu or city flower sellers. Verses II.19, II.21 and II.22 are composed in a very colloquial language and use a high degree of double entendre and sexual innuendo to describe the flirtatious dialogue between city men and the subtly provocative women. Here I have only translated verse II.20 which is fairly straightforward.
II.24 This fantastic sīsa padyam about the city’s royal elephants has six lines that each end in the repetition of a non-finite verb (cimmi cimmi, tarimi tarimi, sāci sāci, ruvvi ruvvi, vĕḍali vĕḍali and tirigi tirigi). This gives the poem a very dynamic feeling which I have tried to recreate in English.
II.26 ‘thoroughbred stallions’ is a translation of ājāneyambulu which TKR 116 glosses as jātigala gurrālu. He later adds that ājāneyam is a place in Africa.
Long ago, horses had wings and freely roamed the heavens. They upset Lord Indra who had the sage Śālihotra use a magical blade of darbha grass to sever their wings (cf. Kumārasaṁbhava I.20). Interestingly, Śālihotra is also the name of the father of Indian veterinary medicine. Among other texts, he wrote the Aśva Āyurveda, a treatise about equine care and health.
II.28 The Samāna Breath is one of the five vital airs or vāyus of the body. The various schools of yoga describe their location and function as follows:
Name Location Function
prāṇa thorax respiration
apāna pelvis excretion
samāna abdomen digestion
vyāna whole body circulation
udāna head expression
Vāyu is also the name of the God of Wind. Additionally, the poet is playing on the word samāna which can also mean equal or similar. Because the Samāna Breath is contained within the belly, it moves with the horses and outruns the Wind who is known for his incredible speed. Shame or disgrace is often described as blackness as in kāḷima kārkŏnun, literally ‘blackness blackened’ (cf. II.41).
II.29 These riders are twice humbled, first because they need two sets of stirrups to climb up onto the tall foreign horses, and second because they become frightened when the horses hunch down to quicken their stride. ‘begin to crouch’ has been added for clarity.
All the cities/countries named here are explicitly cited in the last pāda of the poem. I have not been able to identify śaka-dhaṭṭa or simply dhaṭṭa as noted by TKR 118.
II.30 This sīsa padyam uses the repeated question sandiyamu kaladĕ. The courtesans’ black braids fall like bees settling on a lotus flower. Their waists are so thin there’s nothing but sky to be seen (cf. Note II.57–59). Their eyes shine like fish (mīnākṣi) and their bodies are slender as vines. Compare the descriptions of these city courtesans to the devadāsis of Śrī Villiputtūr (cf. I.59).
II.31 The poem is based on a pun (śleṣa) on the word vīṇa which can mean either a lute, like the one that Nārada carries, or the musk pods taken from an antelope’s navel. The sound of the vīṇa is black like bees and contrasts with the bright white body of the sage.
II.32 King Triśaṅku sought to reach heaven with his mortal body but ended up being suspended upside down in the atmosphere. Earlier he was cursed by the sons of Vaśiṣṭha to become a caṇḍāla or outcaste. ‘defiles the sky’ is used here for niṅgi mātaṅga vāṭi ayyĕn, which literally means ‘the sky turned into an outcaste street’.
II.33 This poem along with the three that follow constitute a catur-varṇa-varṇana, or description of the four castes or varṇas. Giving is often described as flowing water (dāna-dhāra, cf. II.35, II.42). In this verse it is contrasted with the inner heat that these brahmans have accumulated within their bodies over a long period of time (cirasamupāśritāgni main unikin). ‘dexterous’ has been substituted for vala-hastamu, ‘the right hand’.
II.34 ‘unite their hands in giving’ is used for aidu padi seyaru, literally ‘make five into ten’ which TKR 123 glosses as añjaliñcaru or dosili paṭṭaṭam.
II.35 The merchants are wealthy because they are constantly acting justly, or according to dharma (dharmaika nityārjanan saṁbhūtambagu). Another part of vaiśya dharma is to make donations, which is again compared to the flow of water.
The poet seems to be making a subtle joke when he says that the million marker flags are covered by rain clouds (ambhodāvaḷi kappa ketuvulu).
II.36 The image in this poem seems to be based on the ancient Vedic notion that śūdras come from the feet of the sacrificial man (cf. Puruṣa Sūkta, Ṛg Veda 10.90). ‘sustain the city’ has been added.
II.37 This complex poem is based on dohada-kriya, the art of gardening and the specific technique whereby plants are pruned and trimmed so that they flower prematurely. The flowering trees in the verse feel as though they’re being attacked by the girls, as well as the birds and bees that fly all around them like an army surrounding a fort.
II.38 Vāmana and Puṣpadanta are the dig-gajas of the South (yāmya karikin) and Northeast respectively. Snakes are believed to feed on air, and peacocks on snakes.
This verse beautifully summarizes the foregoing description of Madhura and seamlessly introduces the Pāṇḍya monarch.
THE KING
II.39 This verse along with the four that follow it are in praise of the Pāṇḍya king. Although not explicitly framed as such in the original, I have translated these verses in the manner of the royal panegyrics that were commonly sung by poets and bards at court.
The Śrī Vaiṣṇava tradition identifies this king as King Vallabhadeva of the pre-Cola Pāṇḍyas. Nandakumar (1989) pinpoints the king as Ko Neḍumāran (740–767 CE), a Jain convert to Śrī Vaiṣṇavism but this identification seems to be conflated with the famous Neḍumāran who was converted to Śaivism by Sambandar. There is no clear consensus on this issue and scholarly research regarding Pāṇḍya dynastic lists are scant and often inconclusive.
The ‘six traits of a mighty monarch’ (ṣāḍ-guṇyamu) are skills related to sandhi (peacemaking), vigraha (war), yāna (invasion), āsana (patience), dvaidhībhāva (weighing pros and cons) and samāśraya (protection). The ‘four modes of governance’ (dvi-dvaya-upāya, literally ‘the two pairs of means’) are sāma (peaceful negotiation) and dāna (gift giving) which are considered sātvika; and bheda (sowing dissension amongst the enemy) and daṇḍa (punishment) which are rājasika. There is said to be a pair of tāmasika means but this king apparently never resorts to them.
kankādri mudraṇa grantha-karta is a line of interest. VVS 91 identifies the Golden Mountain with Mount Meru, where the king engraved (VVS 92 likhiñcinavāḍu) or proclaimed (TKR 129 prakaṭiñcukunnavāḍu) his fame. The story is based on a legend that I have not been able to trace.
Lord of Lanka (laṅkeśa) is identified by both VVS 92 and TKR 129 as Vibhīṣaṇa, but I believe this maybe a reference to a historical Sinhalese king. The Copper River (Tāmraparṇi) is the traditional boundary betwe
en the Tamil and Siṇhala countries.
The Pāṇḍya kings appear to have been staunch Śaivites until their conversion to Vaiṣṇavism during the time of Yāmunācarya. ‘army of ghosts’ is the sound play bhūta-bhūtātta and relates to Śiva as the leader of the gaṇas, an army of ghastly demigods.
II.40 According to TKR 130 this verse is autobiographical.
II.41 This complex poem is based on multiple puns: ahi meaning ‘snake’ refers to the snakes that are known to wrap themselves around sandalwood trees, but ahi also means ‘enemy’ and here ahi-bhayam is the fear of treason. The seven kinds of ahi-bhayam are caused by: one’s own army (daṇḍu), friends (mitrulu), courtiers (āśritulu), relatives (saṁbandhulu), acquaintances (kāryasamudbhavulu), attendants (bhṛtyulu) or servants (upacāramu ceyuvāru). I have added explanatory phrases to the translation in order to make clear this double meaning.
Añjana is the guardian elephant of the West or paḍamaṭi (from Tel paḍamara = paḍum (falling) + iṭāyiru (sun), see Brown 429). His consort is Añjanavati, sometimes known as Tāmraparṇi, which is also the name of a river and it’s surrounding areas. The word añjana is also another term for kāṭuka or collyrium which is black like shame or disgrace (cf. II.28). Although it would be wrong to love a married woman, there appears to be no fault here as indicated by the term an-añjanata.
The extended metaphor about attacking elephants is most likely autobiographical (TKR 131) as Śrī Kṛṣṇadevarāya is known to have killed many enemy elephants by dealing death blows to their heads.
II.42 The two wings of the royal swan are compared to the two kinds of giving viz. dānam and tyāgam. Gifts can be ceremonial and religious when presented with water and the recitation of mantras, or informal when offered out of compassion, in which case water is not needed. My thanks to Dr. Ramavarapu Sharat Babu for his assistance with this verse and the previous verse.
The Giver of the Worn Garland KRISHNADEVARAYA'S AMUKTAMALYADA Page 13