by Ray Black
All attempts to halt Attila’s onslaught failed until he reached the very walls of Constantinople. Once again, they proved too well built and defended for him to enter and sack the city. Nevertheless he forced negotiations with the Romans and, after three long years, got what he wanted – tributes to be paid in gold and the evacuation of vast swathes of land to add to his empire. Having failed in the east and succeeded in the south, Attila now tried his luck in the west.
Unlike the Byzantine ruler, Attila got along with the heads of the Western Roman Empire. General Flavius Aetius had defeated the Huns, earning him the title ‘The Last of the Romans’ and earning the respect and allegiance of Attila. Aetius had only been de facto ruler until Valentinian III was old enough to take to the throne. He too became Attila’s ally, enabling the Huns to plan an attack on the Visigoths, whose kingdom comprised the area around Toulouse, in modern-day France.
Just as everything was set to invade the Visigoths, Valentinian’s sister Honoria put a spanner in the works. She had been facing an arranged marriage to a Roman senator, to which she objected. She posted her engagement ring to Attila along with a message asking for his intervention. Attila interpreted her actions as an offer of marriage and accepted with a condition that he receive half of the Western Roman Empire as dowry.
When Valentinian discovered the plot he hit the roof and came close to having Honoria executed, but he settled for exile when their mother Galla Placidia made her feelings felt. Valentinian then sent message to Attila explaining that the whole thing had been a big mistake, but Attila was in no mood to hear it.
As a result, the Huns and Romans became sworn enemies. Attila amassed an enormous army of 500,000 troops and marched westwards. Aetius, whose loyalties lay with Valentinian, amassed his own army to defend the Western Roman Empire. The Visigoths were persuaded to join forces with the Romans and an almighty battle ensued at a place called Chalons, east of Paris.
Attila was defeated at the Battle of Chalons. He retreated eastwards with what remained of his army and never returned to the western front of his empire. The following year though, in ad 452, he decided to reawaken his claim to Honoria’s hand in marriage and used it as his excuse to invade Italy.
To avoid the Alps, his army moved into the north of Italy over the Adriatic Sea. The town of Aquileia was sacked and razed to the ground by fire, causing many to flee to the safety of nearby islands, where they established Venezia, often known as Venice.
Aetius now reappeared on the scene, using his army to slow the southward advance of Attila. The Huns then came across the great River Po, which forms a natural defence east-to-west across the Italian peninsula. Having reached this impasse, Attila received a party of peacemakers, including Pope Leo the Great and a number of Roman dignitaries. Attila evidently realised the game was up as he decamped and headed north, having relinquished his claim to both Honoria’s hand and any territories that might have come with it.
Historians are of the opinion that Attila gave in without further bloodshed because his army had become demoralised by a combination of factors. Aetius’ relentless wearing down of his forces wouldn’t have helped, but famine and plague seem to have been the key ingredients. He knew that his army would only become steadily depleted if he continued, so he made the strategic decision to evacuate while he still could.
Attila made his way back to his palace across the River Danube, in modern day Hungary, and before long was planning a third attempt at taking Constantinople. This is where Attila’s story ends however, for he died in early ad 453.
The circumstances of his death are not entirely clear, but a number of theories exist. It seems that he may have died from a haemorrhage brought on by natural causes or excessive drinking. Alternatively, he may have been knifed by his seventh wife, Ilico. The only consistent detail is the mention of blood.
It seems unlikely that his wife was involved though, for she would certainly have been executed, such was Attila’s following. Also, it is said that his horsemen sang a dirge, declaring that they couldn’t describe his dying as a true death because there was no one to blame. In other words, he hadn’t died in battle or under suspicious circumstances.
There is another theory that the new ruler of the Eastern Roman Empire, Marcian, had conspired to have Attila killed. It is conceivable that he may have haemorrhaged due to poisoning, but it seems unlikely.
Attila’s body was apparently buried beneath a river named the Tisza. His most devoted soldiers dammed and diverted the flow before interring his coffin into the river bed. They then volunteered their lives so that the exact location would remain a secret. Legend has it that the coffin was made from iron and embellished with gold and silver.
When Attila died his legacy was fought over by his sons. With a lack of cohesion the Hunnic Empire became immediately vulnerable. It came to an end at the Battle of Nedao in ad 455, when an Ostrogoth-Gepid alliance annihilated the Hunnish army.
The reputation of Attila the Hun is based on his ruthlessness when it came to conquest. He seems to have been quite reasonable to those whom he genuinely got on with or who complied with his rules and demands. He clearly, however, had a disregard for the value of human life, which showed itself in the field of battle and while on the warpath. If commoners didn’t manage to flee, then they would be slain without mercy. Similarly, enemy soldiers would be taken prisoner and executed if ransoms were not paid for their release.
It would be fair to say though, that life was cheap to everyone in that period of history. Different tribes fundamentally believed themselves to be superior to all others, so they though nothing of killing every last man, woman and child – genocide as we now call it. As a matter of fact, it has been suggested that atrocities committed in the Balkans recently stem from a tribal mentality that has survived in the area since the time of the Huns.
In addition, the Ancient Roman Empire had compressed barbarian populations into a relatively small part of Europe. This inevitably created a melting pot of warlike tribes vying for available resources and space. This was the social environment that Attila was born into. If you didn’t become the aggressor and dominate, then someone else would. It was really a matter of survival.
Part of the myth and legend surrounding Attila also stems from the fact that the Roman world was one of burgeoning Christianity at the time. The Romans aspired to notions of being civilized, which meant recognising the value of human life in the eyes of their new omnipotent god.
So, Attila fell victim to the propaganda machine. He was portrayed as the Antichrist, intent on the destruction and extortion of his fellow humans because he wasn’t civilized enough to know any better. Much the same thing happened to other leaders of barbarian tribes, as demonizing was a useful way of exaggerating the differences between holiness and unholiness in a Europe about to emerge from the Dark Ages.
Genghis Khan
Originally named Temujin, after his place of birth, the man who would later become Genghis Khan was born into the Mongol clan known as the Borjigin in circa ad 1162. He became khan, or ruler, in ad 1206 and died in ad 1227. His legacy was the largest homogeneous empire in world history – that is to say, it comprised a contiguous area of territory, stretching from modern-day Korea in the east to the Black Sea in the west, and Russia in the north to Afghanistan in the south.
The secret behind Genghis Khan’s success was his uniting of all the Mongolian tribes into a single Mongol Empire. He also created an army where promotion and position were merit related – a meritocracy – as opposed to accident of birth and wealth – an aristocracy. This did wonders for military morale and ambition, so that the whole force remained loyal to his cause.
Genghis Khan had to learn to fend for himself from a very early age. While still a child his father was murdered. He and his family were then cast out and thereby exiled from their clan as Genghis was successor to his father as clan leader, but deemed too young for the position. That experience taught him to lead and protect his immediate family, b
ut to distrust others and seek vengeance. His family had to adopt a nomadic existence, hunting and gathering to survive.
His first act of murder was performed on his older half-brother Bekhter, whom he shot with an arrow. Genghis had promoted himself to head of the family by taking the life of another. It was to set the pattern for the remainder of his life.
Sometime later Genghis was captured by another tribe and humiliated with a device named a cangue, which is a form of wooden stock that is carried on the shoulders. He was assisted in his escape by the father of a man who would later become a general in his army. This experience taught him the value of friendship and alliance.
By the time he reached adulthood, he was of toughened character, able to survive in the harshest of conditions and kill if necessary, but also able to win friends and influence people. He already had the makings of the great and ruthless leader he would eventually become.
Genghis’ masterstroke was to negotiate a confederation between many of the Central Asian tribes – the beginning of his Mongol Empire. This had a double purpose: it brought to an end much of the intertribal warring that had characterised Central Asia for hundreds of years and it enabled Genghis to amass a good sized army.
In order that every member of the confederation remained obedient to the greater cause, a code of Mongol laws was drawn up, called the Yassa Code. The key incentive for everyone to comply was the promise of untold wealth from the spoils of conquest. In addition, the Yassa Code made it clear that civilians and warriors would benefit from an egalitarian philosophy. That meant that all individuals would be treated as equals and thus they were all rewarded according to the merits of their conduct and achievements.
At that time, Genghis was still known as Temujin, and he was in charge of only his own tribal division within the confederation. So, he too had to prove himself if he wanted to earn additional power within the meritocracy.
Perhaps inevitably, tensions arose between tribes in the confederation as different khans jostled for power and influence. One thing led to another, so that different khans fell by the wayside following civil conflicts. Eventually, it came down to Temujin and an old friend, turned enemy, Jamuqa who had adopted the title Gur Khan (Universal Ruler).
Jamuqa was eventually captured and imprisoned following a battle with Temujin’s forces. Temujin offered Jamuqa the chance for reconciliation and a place in his army but he chose execution. As he wasn’t to die in the field of battle Jamuqa elected to have his back broken as an honourable death as it meant that his blood wouldn’t have been spilled for no reason.
This is the point in history when Temujin adopted the title Genghis Khan (Ruler of All). It also marked the point when all tribes joined the confederation to become known as one people: the Mongols. It was the year ad 1206 and the Mongol Empire was on the map. Genghis Khan was omnipotent leader of about a 250,000 people and he had plans!
The Mongol Empire was boxed in by two Chinese Dynasties: immediately to the east was the Western Xia Dynasty of the Tanguts, to the south-east and the south there was the Jin Dynasty of the Nuzhen. Genghis set his sights on conquering the former as his opening gambit. He briefed his army for an invasion and made his move.
He had predicted that the Jin would fail to help the Western Xia, partly because of the difficult geography involved, but mainly because the Jin emperor was relatively young and naive to the potential threat of the Mongols. This was, in part, because the Jin had a history of lording it over the Mongolian tribes and therefore underestimated the change brought about by Genghis Khan.
Having also defeated a tribe called the Jurchen, who were sworn enemies of the Mongols, Genghis Khan had taken control of the Western Xia territory by ad 1209. He was now poised for vengeance over the Jin.
His campaign began in ad 1211 with a massacre at a place called Badger Pass. A Jin messenger had defected with some counter-intelligence that the Jin army was waiting in ambush. Genghis Khan trapped the Jin Army and mercilessly slaughtered all those who failed to escape. This atrocity was perhaps the event that cemented his reputation as a cold-blooded killer. Not least because the bones of the Chinese dead littered the floor of the pass for many years afterwards. Four years later Genghis Khan had reached the capital of the Jin Dynasty – modern-day Beijing. He besieged the city before capturing and sacking it.
Genghis Khan now set his sights westward, on the Khwarezmid Empire, which covered an area that roughly equates to modern-day eastern Iran, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, southern Kazakhstan, western Afghanistan and Kyrgyzstan. In those days, the area comprised Persia and Transoxiana. As a matter of fact, Genghis Khan originally set out to establish a trading relationship with the Khwarezmians, who were a Muslim people, but his efforts were rejected in no uncertain terms.
Firstly a 500-man Mongol trading caravan was massacred and then a group of ambassadors received an unorthodox welcome. They all had their head’s shaved before being beheaded. Just one was allowed to live and travel back to Genghis Khan with the insulting news. Not surprisingly, Genghis Khan gave the Khwarezmians what was coming to them. His army marched on the city of Otrar and defeated the defending army. The governor of the city was then executed by Genghis Khan in person as retribution for his insults. He had molten silver poured into his eyes and ears.
The Mongol force then brutally murdered the citizens of Otrar. They took lives as readily as they took the spoils of war, until nothing was left to take. Then Genghis Khan sent two of his generals to hunt down the Shah, who had fled the scene to avoid surrender. He eventually died in hiding on an island and with his demise the Khwarezmid Empire was gone forever. The year was ad 1220.
For the remainder of Genghis Khan’s life he focussed on maintaining his empire and launching further campaigns against the Chinese, for whom he had a particular dislike. He sent generals west to advance on territory west of the Caspian Sea – namely modern-day Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and part of Russia (Volga–Bulgaria) – but the Mongol Empire had reached its limit of expansion.
On August 18, 1227, Genghis Khan died while on a military campaign against his old adversaries the Tanguts of the Western Xia Dynasty. Details are unclear, but it seems that his advancing years got the better of him when he was thrown by his horse. A funeral escort took his body back to his homeland, where he was buried in secret. Just like Attila the Hun, it is rumoured that his remains lie beneath a river bed, except that this time a river was diverted to flow over the site.
Much has been written about the supposed cruelty and destruction wrought by Genghis Khan. In truth, it seems that most of it stems from propaganda issued by the Persians and the Chinese, who found themselves at the receiving end of his aggression. Clearly though, they played a part in antagonising him, simply because they were warlike nations themselves. It can therefore be argued that Genghis Khan was simply making a good job of ensuring that they would no longer pose a threat.
It is well documented that he preferred to give nations the chance to become part of his empire without a fight. If they refused to submit and comply with his conditions, then would he come down with a heavy fist. Only when he had lost his respect and patience would he turn to meting out severe punishments, such as exterminating entire populations. However, this was done because it made no tactical sense to allow an insurgent population to continue living within the bounds of the Mongol Empire.
Genghis Khan has been blamed for countless millions of deaths in China, but it is likely that many can be attributed to the Black Death, which was a pandemic of bubonic plague that coincidentally originated in Central Asia at that time and eventually swept its way across most of the Old World.
Of course, pestilence and disease often come in the wake of warfare anyway, due to the presence of corpses and the resulting lack of infrastructure that can mean low standards of hygiene and so on. So any number of causes may have contributed to the Asian deaths.
Interestingly, there is evidence to suggest that Genghis Khan was a spiritual man. In his
twilight years, he developed a fascination for Taoism. A monk named Ch’ang Ch’un came to meet him at the Afghanistan border, but Genghis Khans motive for summoning him soon became apparent. He asked the monk for a potion to make him immortal.
Even though he was disappointed that the monk wasn’t a magician or shaman, Genghis Khan decreed that Taoists should be exempt from paying his taxes. He was noted for his tolerance of all religions, just as long as the followers were compliant. If his trust was betrayed however, then their places of worship were razed to the ground to teach them a lesson.
In conclusion, Genghis Khan certainly seems to have been something of a despot and his Mongol Empire a totalitarian regime. Nevertheless, people could choose their fate. If they accepted the rules of Mongol oppression then they could live quite happily and safely. If they rebelled against those rules, then they could expect to be treated with short shrift and cut down in cold blood. ‘You takes your pick’ might have been Genghis Khan’s motto.
Vlad the Impaler
When it comes to cold-blooded killers Vlad the Impaler must surely take the prize. He ran up a list of atrocities as long as your arm. As his name suggests, he had a predilection for impaling people on wooden stakes. His preferred method was to insert a sharpened and greased pole through the rectum and run it through the torso until it exited through the mouth. This was done while the unfortunate victims had their legs pulled apart by two horses. They were then hoisted into an upright position and left to die in agony, which sometimes took three or four days.
Vlad’s reputation was such that he became the stuff of horrifying folk tales that served to warn children of the dangers of misbehaving and disobeying their parents. In 1897, the Irish author Bram Stoker found enough inspiration in the tales to invent the story of Count Dracula, an immortal vampire who feasted on the blood of his victims. The fictitious Dracula had a morbid fear of the holy cross and could be killed by being impaled with a wooden stake through the heart. Vlad was in fact known in Eastern Europe as Dracula as it is derived from the word ‘dracul’, which translates as ‘devil’, ‘demon’ or ‘dragon’. This was because his father had been a member of the Order of the Dragon and given the surname ‘Dracul’.