We can see from these statements that Confucius believed that li and ren were profoundly interconnected. Performing rituals was an important way of developing ren, but at the same time he said that in order to carry out rituals in a meaningful way, they had to be done with sincerity and respect towards others, qualities very close to ren. He went so far as to claim, ‘If a man has no humanity, what can he have to do with ritual?’20 So, rituals (li) were necessary for the cultivation of compassion and humanity (ren), but without this compassion it would be impossible to perform rituals correctly. (For this author, one way of understanding the critical connection between li and ren is to think of a tightrope walker. Without balance, he cannot walk on the rope safely, but to develop his sense of balance he needs to practise walking on a tightrope – since the act forces him to focus on balance. It seems to me that Confucius saw the correct performance of rituals as a way of summoning up the compassion inside oneself, and that the more one practised using this quality, the more present it will be in one’s character and life.)
EDUCATION
‘Those who have innate knowledge are the highest. Next come those who acquire knowledge through learning. Next again come those who learn through the trials of life. Lowest are the common people who go through the trials of life without learning anything.’21
Confucius did not assume that he had innate knowledge. He undoubtedly ranked himself among the second category of people on his list. He spent his entire life studying in order to understand the world and better himself, believing that learning was an ongoing process and one which would help him develop his mind and his character. He once compared the procedure to the building of a mound: ‘If you stop before the last basket of earth, it remains forever unfinished. It is like the filling of a ditch: once you have tipped in the first basket, you only need to carry on in order to progress.’22 His own studies were in history, literature, traditional rituals and song, particularly those of the Western Zhou (1050–770 BC), a time when he judged the country to have been ruled by wise and benevolent kings and administrators. He felt that much of the wisdom of this period had been lost, and this was why the country was in disarray. He believed that by studying and discussing the various records of the Western Zhou, the rulers of his day could learn how to win the respect of their people and restore peace and stability to their realm; by reading the literature and learning the songs and poetry, people would acquire wisdom about how society worked at a happier time in the country’s history. And, by studying and relearning the many rituals and performing them the correct way – with respect and sincerity – people at all levels of society could improve their relationships.
To Confucius, education was less an exercise for the mind than for the spirit. By expanding one’s intellect, one would also cultivate one’s character. This, to Confucius, was the main goal of learning, but in his day the concept seemed to have been forgotten. ‘In the olden days, people studied to improve themselves. Now’, he lamented, ‘they study in order to impress others.’23 As a teacher, he delighted in sharing his own knowledge with keen young minds, even those who could not afford to pay. For him the desire to learn and improve one’s character was of prime importance: ‘I enlighten only the enthusiastic; I guide only the fervent.’24 Over the years, he took on hundreds of students from all walks of life and shared with them the classics of literature, history, music and ritual. He particularly stressed the importance of studying and performing traditional rituals as a means of developing their moral characters. ‘A gentleman enlarges his learning through literature and restrains himself with ritual; therefore he is not likely to go wrong.’25 This attitude towards education was enthusiastically accepted by his disciples, some of whom became teachers themselves and passed on this philosophy to their own students. Others went on to work in government positions, eventually incorporating this approach into the government’s educational programme. However, Confucius lamented that he was unable to convince the rulers of his time that the words and deeds of wise people from days gone by could help them to fix the ills that were plaguing the land.
JUNZI
The Analects is full of references to a type of man known in Chinese as a junzi – a gentleman, ideal man, great man or moral man. To Confucius, a junzi was not only educated in the classics, but had also mastered rituals (li) and had acquired and practised compassion (ren) towards others. To become a junzi was the ultimate goal of Confucius and his followers. The highest moral and spiritual level a human being could attain, junzi were very rare, and although it seems that Confucius’ own followers regarded him as such a man, he felt he never attained that level. However, according to The Analects he seems to have had a clear understanding of what a junzi should be and described him in many different ways. For example, ‘A gentleman is proud without being aggressive, sociable but not partisan.’26 He is ‘principled but not rigid’.27 ‘A gentleman is without grief and without fear … His conscience is without reproach. Why should he grieve, what should he fear?’28 ‘A gentleman takes justice as his basis, enacts it in conformity with the ritual, expounds it with modesty, and through good faith, brings it to fruition. This is how a gentleman proceeds.’29
For a gentleman, integrity was more important than wealth or rank, a point that Confucius stressed to his students constantly. ‘Riches and rank are what every man craves; yet, if the only way to obtain them goes against his principles, he should desist from such a pursuit.’30 A junzi recognises that true wealth is the successful cultivation of the self by following a path of morality and compassion. ‘A gentleman seeks the Way, he does not seek a living. Plough the fields and perchance you may go hungry. Apply yourself to learning and perchance you may yet make a career. A gentleman worries whether he will find the Way, he does not worry that he may remain poor.’31 Furthermore, the concerns of a junzi extend far beyond his own needs and desires. He always cares about others. ‘As for the good man: what he wishes to achieve for himself, he helps others to achieve; what he wishes to obtain for himself, he enables others to obtain – the ability to take one’s own aspirations as a guide is the recipe for goodness.’32
The subject of the junzi seems to have been at the centre of many discussions between Confucius and his students. As well as making simple descriptive statements about the character of a junzi, the Master also occasionally chose to contrast the junzi with a lesser man, or xiaoren (literally a ‘small man’, but also sometimes translated as a ‘petty man’ or ‘vulgar man’). For example, ‘A gentleman reaches up. A vulgar man reaches down.’33 Or, ‘A gentleman makes demands on himself; a vulgar man makes demands on others.’34 He also claimed that ‘A gentleman considers what is just; a small man considers what is expedient’,35 and that ‘a gentleman considers the whole rather than the parts. The small man considers the parts rather than the whole.’36 To Confucius the junzi, unlike less morally developed individuals, was able to reach upwards and outwards to something larger than himself, enabling him to give freely without demanding of others.
Although such descriptions of the attitudes of a junzi were undoubtedly helpful for Confucius’ students, it seems that they were also curious about a junzi’s feelings and how he might manage them. For example, one student, Zigong, asked whether a junzi felt hatred, to which Confucius replied, ‘Yes. He hates those who dwell on what is hateful in others. He hates those inferiors who slander their superiors. He hates those whose courage is not tempered by civilised manners. He hates the impulsive and the stubborn.’37 When asked what a gentleman might fear, Confucius explained, ‘A gentleman fears three things. He fears the will of Heaven. He fears great men. He fears the words of the saints.’38 Yet, although Confucius conceded that a gentleman could have feelings such as hatred and fear, there were other urges that he kept under control. He explained, ‘A gentleman must guard himself against three dangers. When young, as the energy of the blood is still in turmoil, he should guard against lust. In his maturity, as the energy of the blood is at its full, he should guard
against rage. In old age, as the energy of the blood is on the wane, he should guard against rapacity.’39 According to Confucius’ teachings, a junzi mastered all these powerful emotions using li. By learning and practising certain rituals, he would cultivate his character so that lust, rage and rapacity could be kept at bay. Ideally, his own self-control would set an example to others around him, and they too would learn how to master their aggressive emotions. ‘Through self-cultivation, he achieves dignity … Through self-cultivation, he spreads his peace to his neighbors … Through self-cultivation, he spreads his peace to all the people.’40
RELATIONSHIPS
To Confucius, the whole point of cultivating one’s compassion and morality was to be able to enjoy successful and meaningful relationships with other human beings and thus contribute to a more harmonious society. He rejected the practice of mystics and hermits, who retreated from society in order to develop their characters. ‘One cannot associate with birds and beasts,’ he said. ‘With whom should I keep company, if not with my own kind?’41 There was nothing more important to Confucius than the way in which people relate to each other at all levels of society and in all aspects of life. His most faithful student, Zilu, summed up his attitude to human relationships beautifully: ‘It is not right to withdraw from public life. One cannot ignore the difference between age and youth, and even less the mutual obligations between prince and subject. One cannot discard the most essential human relationships, simply to preserve one’s purity.’42
Confucius believed that human relationships were the very foundation of society. At the very heart of humanity was the relationship between a parent and a child, and if this relationship was conducted well, others should follow. Early in The Analects comes his statement, ‘At home, a young man must respect his parents; abroad he must respect his elders,’43 which is echoed and reinforced by that of his follower, You Rou: ‘To respect parents and elders is the root of humanity.’44 Filial piety is a central precept in the teachings of Confucius and is an aspect of Confucianism that has been given considerable attention over the centuries in many cultures. However, it is important to note that although Confucius believed that loyalty and obedience towards one’s parents, ancestors and elders were of great importance, he also held that a parent or elder had a responsibility to be kind and nurturing towards the child or younger person. There should be reciprocity in this and any other relationship. Indeed, when asked by his student Zigong, ‘Is there a single word that could guide one’s entire life’, he answered, ‘Should it not be reciprocity? What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others.’45 To Confucius, therefore, a relationship was a two-way process, in which both parties had mutual responsibilities and benefits. His version of the Golden Rule applied to relationships at all levels of society, and both parties were expected to behave according to their status – the person in the higher position with kindness towards the lower, and the lower with loyalty towards the higher.
GOVERNMENT
In Confucius’ day, the kings of the Zhou dynasty had lost their power over the various states of the region and the relationship between the states was very turbulent, the larger ones vying with each other for power and territory and smaller ones fearing for their survival. Within each of the states, chaos prevailed as the reigning dukes fought to hold on to their power against both external and internal threats, without paying much heed to the needs of their own people. Confucius believed that it was because many of the rulers and administrators of his day lacked virtue that the region was in such turmoil. These leaders, from the Zhou kings down to the ministers of each of the kingdoms, had lost their way morally and only if they found it again could stability be restored. It was Confucius’ goal in life to become an adviser to a duke or prince and help him to rule virtuously so that peace and harmony would prevail in that region and spread to others. Much of his philosophy was formed with this aim in mind, and many sections of The Analects contain advice about how to rule well.
Throughout his career he provided dukes and ministers with advice such as ‘Raise the straight and set them above the crooked,’46 ‘Guide the officials. Forgive small mistakes. Promote men of talent,’47 and ‘Mobilise the people only at the right times.’48 However, his most valuable counsel to rulers and administrators was really no different from that which he gave to his students when they sought to improve themselves. When Confucius was asked by the governor of the small district of She about government, the Master said: ‘Make the local people happy and attract migrants from afar.’49 In this statement he was suggesting that a ruler’s priority should be his people, and that by demonstrating benevolence, or ren, towards them, he would not only make them happy but also draw more people to his state. He also advised, ‘If one can govern the country by observing ritual and showing deference, there is no more to be said,’50 and suggested that a ruler ‘lead the people as if performing a great ceremony’.51 Since a ruler’s behaviour impacted on the many thousands of people in his domain, the pursuit of ren and the performance of li were more critical for him than for an ordinary person. Confucius believed that it should be the goal of every king, prince, duke or minister to be a gentleman, and described the behaviour of Zichan, a prime minister of the state of Zheng, as an example of a gentleman administrator: ‘He followed the way of a gentleman in four respects: in his private conduct he was dignified; in serving his master he was respectful; in caring for the people he was generous; in employing the people he was just.’52 Confucius strongly believed that if a ruler was a true junzi in his private and public affairs, his morality would influence all those below him. ‘If you desire what is good, the people will be good. The moral power of the gentleman is wind, the moral power of the common man is grass. Under the wind, the grass must bend.’53
Just as he emphasised the importance of reciprocity in family relationships, Confucius also stressed its significance in the relations between a ruler and his subjects. He often compared the ruler–subject relationship to that of a parent and child, in which nurturing care and kindness are rewarded with loyalty and piety. When asked by Lord Ji Kangzi, a powerful minister of the state of Lu, ‘What should I do in order to make the people respectful, loyal and zealous?’ Confucius responded, ‘Approach them with dignity and they will be respectful.’54 He believed that, just as a father earned his son’s respect by showing him kindness, he would only earn obedience and loyalty from his people if he showed them compassion and respect. ‘What you do not wish for yourself, do not impose on others,’55 he advised leaders. He expanded on this idea: ‘Lead them by political manoeuvres, restrain them with punishments: the people will become cunning and shameless. Lead them by virtue and restrain them with ritual; they will develop a sense of shame and a sense of participation.’56 According to Confucius, the people should not be expected to be loyal to a cruel and corrupt ruler, and without their loyalty a ruler was bound to fall. ‘Without the trust of the people,’ he warned, ‘no government can stand.’57 In contrast, ‘He who rules by virtue is like the polestar, which remains unmoving in its mansion while all the others revolve respectfully around it.’58
What can Confucius offer us today?
Confucius lived in a world that is very different from ours today, but much of the wisdom credited to him is timeless. His advice that we should aim to be more benevolent and respectful in our dealings with others and think of them before ourselves can be applied to all our relationships and undoubtedly enrich our lives. Simple daily rituals, such as smiling or saying hello to strangers, can make the world a more comfortable place, while holding more formal rituals to honour those who came before us can help us cultivate a sense of gratitude and ground ourselves firmly in history. We should see education less as food for our brain or our careers, and more as food for our souls and characters that can transform a lesson in history, literature, art or music into a moment of connection with the greater human experience. Confucius believed that by cultivating compassion, practising rituals and studying the world,
people could become more morally aware, junzi, and the more such people, especially in positions of power, the more peaceful and harmonious the world would be. All these beliefs surely apply today.
There is much that we can learn from The Analects about living more fulfilling lives. For example, the text opens with the lines: ‘To learn something and then to put it into practice at the right time: is this not a joy? To have friends coming from afar: is this not a delight? Not to be upset when one’s merits are ignored: is this not the mark of a gentleman?’59 Such seemingly simple advice actually sums up much of what is important in life. We should learn about the world and apply our learning carefully. We should value our loved ones and enjoy their company. And we should not waste time worrying about what other people think of us. If we could follow this advice alone, we might all be much happier. It seems that Confucius was able to practise much of what he preached. In The Analects he is said to have described himself as ‘the sort of man who, in his enthusiasm, forgets to eat, in his joy forgets to worry, and who ignores the approach of old age’.60 This self-portrait certainly suggests that Confucius found much pleasure and happiness in his life, despite his failure to put his teachings into practice in government and the many hard years he spent wandering around the country looking for work. Because he believed what he was teaching, he had the strength and resilience not only to overcome the many adversities that he faced but also to inspire others to follow him and learn his philosophy. Although we look back at his life and teachings through the obscurity of time and legend, his story still offers us much to contemplate that is relevant today.
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The Bitter Gourd That Is Not Eaten
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