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Notes
This book was built on a vast foundation of other books, journals, and publications spanning a wide variety of academic fields. Generally, those authors who provided the main scaffolding and support walls have been thanked in the acknowledgments and referenced in the text itself with numerous direct quotations to highlight their weight and importance. Given the topic of this work, and that at times the historical impact of the mosquito is measured by body counts, statistics are tricky and admittedly many are estimates. That is the inherent nature of historical statistical analysis and there is no way of getting around it. Those used in the book represent the most up-to-date figures or estimates, adhere to the consensus of experts, or find middle ground within data ranges.
Not all sources consulted will be referenced here, although most appear in the bibliography. Many books simply triggered my thought process without being directly employed. The chapter notes below are intended to offer further readings to those who are curious or seeking more detailed explanations, and most importantly, to acknowledge and recognize the authors who provided construction materials for each chapter, while highlighting their exhaustive research and brilliant publications.
CHAPTER 1
The role of the mosquito and other insects in threatening and thinning the reign of the di
nosaurs can be found in What Bugged the Dinosaurs: Insects, Disease, and Death in the Cretaceous by paleobiologists George and Roberta Poinar. Other sources that offer a glimpse into this theory are The Great Dinosaur Extinction Controversy by Charles Officer and Jake Page; Scott Richard Shaw’s Planet of the Bugs: Evolution and the Rise of Insects; and Robert T. Bakker’s The Dinosaur Heresies: New Theories Unlocking the Mystery of the Dinosaurs and Their Extinction. Numerous scientific and biological books address the life cycle and inner workings of the mosquito and her hitchhiking microbes. The most readable explanations are offered in Mosquito: A Natural History of Our Most Persistent and Deadly Foe by Andrew Spielman and Michael D’Antonio, and in J. D. Gillett’s The Mosquito: Its Life, Activities, and Impact on Human Affairs. Two exhaustively researched and well-crafted books provided the bulk of information for the coevolution of malaria, our hominid ancestors, and Homo sapiens: James L. A. Webb Jr.’s Humanity’s Burden: A Global History of Malaria and Randall M. Packard’s The Making of a Tropical Disease: A Short History of Malaria. These two brilliant accounts also track the global spread and history of malaria across our existence and were referenced or consulted throughout many chapters of this book. My succinct synopses and summaries of mosquito-borne diseases were an amalgamation from a compilation of various sources too lengthy to list here. John L. Capinera’s edited four-volume, 4,350-page Encyclopedia of Entomology proved to be a tremendous reference and guidebook during the chronology of my writing. S. L. Kotar and J. E. Gessler’s Yellow Fever: A Worldwide History and David K. Patterson’s article “Yellow Fever Epidemics and Mortality in the United States, 1693–1905” provide an excellent and detailed investigation of the deadly virus.
CHAPTER 2
In addition to the splendid works of Webb and Packard, The Fever: How Malaria Has Ruled Humankind for 500,000 Years by Sonia Shah provides an excellent chronology of malaria’s impact on human affairs, including genetic resistance, as does Sylvie Manguin’s Biodiversity of Malaria in the World, although with a much more scientific slant. David Reich’s book Who We Are and How We Got Here: Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past provides a well-written snapshot overview of its title. Numerous other works provided summaries of human genetic immunities to malaria, including Barry and David Zimmerman, Killer Germs: Microbes and Diseases That Threaten Humanity; Ethne Barnes, Diseases and Human Evolution; Gary Paul Nabhan, Why Some Like It Hot: Food, Genes, and Cultural Diversity; Michael J. Behe, The Edge of Evolution: The Search for the Limits of Darwinism; and Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. The connections between coffee (and tea) and the mosquito (and African slavery and revolutions) are highlighted by Antony Wild, Coffee: A Dark History; Mark Pendergrast Uncommon Grounds: The History of Coffee and How It Transformed Our World; and Tom Standage, A History of the World in 6 Glasses, not only in this chapter but throughout the book. The Bantu migrations and their subsequent domination of southern Africa appear in Diamond, Shah, Packard, and Webb. Ryan Clark received a fair amount of media attention during and after his ordeal. Numerous widely available and published interviews, articles, and stories were utilized.
CHAPTER 3 & CHAPTER 4
Much of these chapters was written from the primary sources of ancient scribes and physicians, including Hippocrates, Galen, Plato, and Thucydides among a host of others. Other valuable sources pertaining to ancient Greece and Rome include J. N. Hays, The Burdens of Disease: Epidemics and Human Response in Western History; R. S. Bray, Armies of Pestilence: The Impact of Disease on History; Hans Zinsser, Rats, Lice and History; J. L. Cloudsley-Thompson, Insects and History; W. H. S. Jones, Malaria: A Neglected Factor in the History of Greece and Rome; Donald J. Hughes, Environmental Problems of the Greeks and Romans: Ecology in the Ancient Mediterranean; Eric H. Cline, 1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed; Philip Norrie, A History of Disease in Ancient Times: More Lethal Than War; William H. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples; Adrian Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars and Pax Romana: War, Peace and Conquest in the Roman World; The Oxford Handbook of Warfare in the Classical World, edited by Brian Campbell and Lawrence A. Tritle; Adrienne Mayor, Greek Fire, Poison Arrows, and Scorpion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the Ancient World; Robert L. O’Connell, The Ghosts of Cannae: Hannibal and the Darkest Hour of the Roman Republic; Patrick N. Hunt, Hannibal; Serge Lancel, Hannibal; Richard A. Gabriel, Hannibal: The Military Biography of Rome’s Greatest Enemy; and two brawny and spanning volumes by A. D. Cliff and M. R. Smallman-Raynor, War Epidemics: An Historical Geography of Infectious Diseases in Military Conflict and Civil Strife, 1850–2000 and Emergence and Re-Emergence of Infectious Diseases: A Geographical Analysis. Egypt and the life and death of King Tut are covered in the works of Zahi Hawass as well as many of those listed above. For Alexander the Great’s malaria-riddled imperial retreat, life, and death, see the numerous sources listed in the bibliography. Throughout history, the Pontine Marshes surrounding Rome have been a regional malaria hotbed and factor in the shaping of early Western civilization perhaps more than any other geographical area outside of Africa. The vast catalogue of primary and secondary literature concerning malaria and Rome spans the Roman Empire to the Second World War. Kyle Harper’s The Fate of Rome: Climate, Disease, and the End of an Empire is a scholarly gem, as are the works of Hughes, Bray, and Jones mentioned above. Two other invaluable and finely crafted books are Robert Sallares, Malaria and Rome: A History of Malaria in Ancient Italy, and Frank M. Snowden, The Conquest of Malaria: Italy, 1900–1962. The journal articles of David Soren and Jennifer C. Hume offer archeological evidence of malaria’s reign throughout the ancient world; and the works of Webb and Shah also unearth fragments of the mosquito in antiquity.
CHAPTER 5
The correlation between disease, including endemic malaria, and the rise and spread of Christianity is detailed in Hays, The Burdens of Disease; David Clark, Germs, Genes, and Civilization: How Epidemics Shaped Who We Are Today; Gary B. Ferngren, Medicine and Health Care in Early Christianity and Medicine & Religion; Daniel T. Reef, Plagues, Priests, and Demons: Sacred Narratives and the Rise of Christianity in the Old World and the New; Kenneth G. Zysk, Religious Medicine: The History and Evolution of Indian Medicine; Daughters of Hecate: Women and Magic in the Ancient World, edited by Kimberly B. Stratton and Danya S. Kalleres; and in the works of Cloudsley-Thompson, Zinsser, Irwin W. Sherman, and Alfred W. Crosby. Webb and Packard provide an overview of the spread of malaria in Europe during the Dark Ages and the Crusades era. Alfred W. Crosby’s Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900 highlights the role of mosquito-borne disease during the Crusades with brilliant clarity, so much so that I included a lengthy quotation from this work in the text (one of only a handful in the book). His account formed the scaffolding and was drywalled by the works of Piers D. Mitchell, Medicine in the Crusades: Warfare, Wounds and the Medieval Surgeon; Helen J. Nicholson, editor of The Chronicle of the Third Crusade: The Itinerarium Peregrinorum et Gesta Regis Ricardi; John D. Hosler, The Siege of Acre, 1189–1191: Saladin, Richard the Lionheart, and the Battle That Decided the Third Crusade; Geoffrey Hindley, The Crusades: Islam and Christianity in the Struggle for World Supremacy; Thomas F. Madden, The Concise History of the Crusades; Jonathan Riley-Smith, The Crusades: A History.
CHAPTER 6
The best depictions of Genghis Khan and the Mongol era can be found in Peter Frankopan, The Silk Roads: A New History of the World; Frank McLynn, Genghis Khan: His Conquests, His Empire, His Legacy; Jack Weatherford, Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World; James Chambers, The Devil’s Horsemen: The Mongol Invasion of Europe; John Keegan, The Mask of Command: Alexander the Great, Wellington, Ulysses S. Grant, Hitler, and the Nature of Leadership; Robert B. Marks, Tigers, Rice, Silk, and Silt: Environment and Economy in Late Imperial South China; Jacques Gernet, Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250–1276; Peter Jackson, The Mongols and the West, 1221–1410; Carl Fredrik Sverdrup, The
Mongol Conquests: The Military Operations of Genghis Khan and Sübe’etei. The works of Bray, Crosby, Capinera, and William H. McNeill also offer insight into the Mongol world.
CHAPTER 7 & CHAPTER 8
The literature on the Columbian Exchange is extremely vast. Primary sources (including quotations) such as the writings of Bartolome de las Casas, for example, were employed as much as possible. My archival research in Britain, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the United States, and South Africa for one of my previous books, Indigenous Peoples of the British Dominions and the First World War, was utilized for these chapters as well. The most relevant secondary sources for these two chapters are: Alfred W. Crosby, The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 and Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900; Charles C. Mann, 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created; William H. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples; Mark Harrison, Disease and the Modern World: 1500 to the Present Day; Biological Consequences of the European Expansion, 1450–1800, edited by Kenneth F. Kiple and Stephen V. Beck; Robert S. Desowitz, Who Gave Pinta to the Santa Maria?: Torrid Diseases in the Temperate World; Tony Horwitz, A Voyage Long and Strange: On the Trail of Vikings, Conquistadors, Lost Colonists, and Other Adventurers in Early America; Noble David Cook, Born to Die: Disease and New World Conquest, 1492–1650; Daniel J. Boorstin, The Discoverers; Dorothy H. Crawford, Deadly Companions: How Microbes Shaped Our History; Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel, from whom I borrowed the term “accidental conquerors”; Lawrence H. Keeley, War Before Civilization: The Myth of the Peaceful Savage; Africa’s Development in Historical Perspective, edited by Emmanuel Akyeampong, Robert H. Bates, Nathan Nunn, and James A. Robinson; Robert A. McGuire and Philip R. P. Coelho, Parasites, Pathogens, and Progress: Diseases and Economic Development; Peter McCandless, Slavery, Disease, and Suffering in the Southern Lowcountry; Margaret Humphreys, Yellow Fever and the South; Sheldon Watts, Epidemics and History: Disease, Power and Imperialism. For the discovery and influence of the cinchona tree and quinine, see: Fiammetta Rocco, The Miraculous Fever-Tree: Malaria, Medicine and the Cure That Changed the World; Mark Honigsbaum, The Fever Trail: In Search of the Cure for Malaria; Rohan Deb Roy, Malarial Subjects: Empire, Medicine and Nonhumans in British India, 1820–1909. On malaria and the opium trade, see Paul C. Winther, Anglo-European Science and the Rhetoric of Empire: Malaria, Opium, and British Rule in India, 1756–1895.
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