The Mosquito
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CHAPTER 9 & CHAPTER 10
Primary source material was consulted when applicable and Mann’s 1493 was a wealth of concise, narrative-driven information. Webb, Packard, Kiple and Beck, Spielman, and Petriello outline the spread of malaria within Europe and England and its arrival and dissemination in the Americas in articulate detail. Virginia DeJohn Anderson’s Creatures of Empire: How Domestic Animals Transformed Early America was also a sturdy reference. The Scottish Darien scheme is outlined in Shah, Mann, and J. R. McNeill, Mosquito Empires: Ecology and War in the Greater Caribbean, 1620–1914, among other sources. The concept of the three zones of infection and the Mason-Dixon Line in the Americas is borrowed, modified, and cobbled together from Webb, J. R. McNeill, and Mann.
CHAPTER 11
Masterworks for this period are Fred Anderson, Crucible of War: The Seven Years’ War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766; Alvin Rabushka, Taxation in Colonial America; Erica Charters, Disease, War, and the Imperial State: The Welfare of the British Armed Services during the Seven Years’ War; Robert S. Allen, His Majesty’s Indian Allies: British Indian Policy in the Defence of Canada, 1774–1815; William M. Fowler, Empires at War: The Seven Years’ War and the Struggle for North America, 1754–1763; Richard Middleton, Pontiac’s War: Its Causes, Course and Consequences. David R. Petriello’s Bacteria and Bayonets: The Impact of Disease in American Military History traces the title’s theme from Columbus through recent American military campaigns and was a useful reference throughout many chapters of this book. J. R. McNeill articulates the role of the mosquito in colonial wars, including the French disaster at Kourou/Devil’s Island, leading up to the rebellions across the Americas encompassing the American Revolution.
CHAPTER 12 & CHAPTER 13
Two indispensable, exceptional, and exhaustively researched publications pertaining to the mosquito’s role in defining the outcome of the American Revolution (and other insurrections against colonial rule in the Americas) are Mosquito Empires by J. R. McNeill and Slavery, Disease, and Suffering in the Southern Lowcountry by Peter McCandless. A journal article by McCandless, “Revolutionary Fever: Disease and War in the Lower South, 1776–1783,” supplements his book. The works of Sherman, Mann, Shah, and Petriello also touch on the mosquito’s role in facilitating American nationhood. The ensuing revolutions (and the explosion of yellow fever) across the Americas, including those led by Toussaint Louverture in Haiti and Simon Bolivar across the Spanish colonies, are exquisitely detailed by J. R. McNeill, Mann, Sherman, Cliff and Smallman-Raynor, and Watts; Billy G. Smith, Ship of Death: A Voyage That Changed the Atlantic World; Jim Murphy, An American Plague: The True and Terrifying Story of the Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1793; J. H. Powell, Bring Out Your Dead: The Great Plague of Yellow Fever in Philadelphia in 1793; Rebecca Earle, “‘A Grave for Europeans’?: Disease, Death, and the Spanish-American Revolutions.”
CHAPTER 14 & CHAPTER 15
For the War of 1812, see Alan Taylor, The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British Subjects, Irish Rebels, and Indian Allies; Walter R. Borneman, 1812: The War That Forged a Nation; Donald R. Hickey, The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict. The works of J. R. McNeill, Petriello, and Amy S. Greenberg, A Wicked War: Polk, Clay, Lincoln, and the 1846 U.S. Invasion of Mexico, highlight the role of the mosquito in the Mexican-American War and in the new American west. Andrew McIlwaine Bell’s dazzlingly brilliant Mosquito Soldiers: Malaria, Yellow Fever, and the Course of the American Civil War provides a painstaking and erudite account of the interplay between the mosquito, malaria, quinine supplies, and grand strategy during the conflict, ultimately galvanizing and underpinning both the Emancipation Proclamation and a Union victory. Other invaluable Civil War sources are Margaret Humphreys, Marrow of Tragedy: The Health Crisis of the American Civil War and Intensely Human: The Health of the Black Soldier in the American Civil War; Kathryn Shively Meier, Nature’s Civil War: Common Soldiers and the Environment in 1862 Virginia; Jim Downs, Sick from Freedom: African-American Illness and Suffering during the Civil War and Reconstruction; Mark S. Schantz, Awaiting the Heavenly Country: The Civil War and America’s Culture of Death; Frank R. Freemon, Gangrene and Glory: Medical Care During the American Civil War; Paul E. Steiner, Disease in the Civil War: Natural Biological Warfare in 1861–1865; John Keegan, The American Civil War. Ron Chernow’s superb biography, Grant, situates General Grant and President Lincoln within the larger issues and shifting aims of the war, including the Emancipation Proclamation. Other sources that provide context include Mann, McGuire and Coelho, Petriello, Mark Harrison, and Cliff and Smallman-Raynor.
CHAPTER 16
The spread of mosquito-borne disease in the United States during the Reconstruction era after the Civil War, including the yellow fever epidemics of the 1870s, is detailed in both Webb and Packard as well as Molly Caldwell Crosby, The American Plague: The Untold Story of Yellow Fever, the Epidemic That Shaped Our History; Jeanette Keith, Fever Season: The Story of a Terrifying Epidemic and the People Who Saved a City; Khaled J. Bloom, The Mississippi Valley’s Great Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1878; Stephen H. Gehlbach, American Plagues: Lessons from Our Battles with Disease. The discoveries and eradication programs of Manson, Laveran, Ross, Grassi, Finley, Reed, Gorgas, and others are strewn throughout a vast array of sources, including their own publications. Gordon Harrison, Mosquitoes, Malaria and Man: A History of the Hostilities Since 1880, provides a thorough account, as do Greer Williams, The Plague Killers; James R. Busvine, Disease Transmission by Insects: Its Discovery and 90 Years of Effort to Prevent It; Gordon Patterson, The Mosquito Crusades: A History of the American Anti-Mosquito Movement from the Reed Commission to the First Earth Day; James E. McWilliams, American Pests: The Losing War on Insects from Colonial Times to DDT; Nancy Leys Stepan, Eradication: Ridding the World of Diseases Forever? The influence of mosquito-borne disease in Cuba and the Philippines during the Spanish-American War and in the construction of the Panama Canal is well known and can be found in Ken de Bevoise, Agents of Apocalypse: Epidemic Disease in the Colonial Philippines; Warwick Anderson, Colonial Pathologies: American Tropical Medicine, Race, and Hygiene in the Philippines; Joseph Smith, The Spanish-American War: Conflict in the Caribbean and the Pacific, 1895–1902; Vincent J. Cirillo, Bullets and Bacilli: The Spanish-American War and Military Medicine; Paul S. Sutter, “Nature’s Agents or Agents of Empire?: Entomological Workers and Environmental Change during the Construction of the Panama Canal,” in addition to J. R. McNeill, Petriello, Watts, Shah, Cliff and Smallman-Raynor, Rocco, and Honigsbaum.
CHAPTER 17
The world wars are covered by Karen M. Masterson’s brilliant book, The Malaria Project: The U.S. Government’s Secret Mission to Find a Miracle Cure; Leo B. Slater, War and Disease: Biomedical Research on Malaria in the Twentieth Century; Paul F. Russell, Man’s Mastery of Malaria; Snowden, The Conquest of Malaria; Emory C. Cushing, History of Entomology in World War II; David Kinkela, DDT and the American Century: Global Health, Environmental Politics, and the Pesticide That Changed the World; Mark Harrison, Medicine and Victory: British Military Medicine in the Second World War and The Medical War: British Military Medicine in the First World War; Donald Avery, Pathogens for War: Biological Weapons, Canadian Life Scientists, and North American Biodefence; Terrorism, War, or Disease?: Unraveling the Use of Biological Weapons, edited by Anne L. Clunan, Peter R. Lavoy, and Susan Martin; Ute Deichmann, Biologists Under Hitler; Bernard J. Brabin, “Malaria’s Contribution to World War One—the Unexpected Adversary.” The works of Gordon Harrison, Stepan, Webb, McWilliams, Petriello, Cliff and Smallman-Raynor also aided in building these chapters. Archival and secondary research for my previous book, The First World Oil War, was also of value for these chapters when looking at mosquito-borne disease rates in the sideshow theaters of the First World War, including the Middle East, Salonika, Africa, the Russian Caucasus, and during the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War.
CHAPTE
R 18 & CHAPTER 19
The postwar eradication decades, the rise of DDT, Rachel Carson’s silent springs and the modern environmental movement, and the relatively recent resurgence of mosquito-borne disease are widely covered across the writings of numerous academic fields and mass media. Generally, these chapters were assembled from the works of Slater, Masterson, Stepan, McWilliams, Spielman and D’Antonio, Packard, Cliff and Smallman-Raynor, Webb, Patterson, Kinkela, Russell, and Shah, as well as Alex Perry, Lifeblood: How to Change the World One Dead Mosquito at a Time; the extremely detailed Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance, edited by Kenneth J. Arrow, Claire B. Panosian, and Hellen Gelband; Susan D. Moeller, Compassion Fatigue: How the Media Sell Disease, Famine, War and Death; Mark Harrison, Contagion: How Commerce Has Spread Disease; and reports and publications from the WHO, the CDC, and the Gates Foundation. Specific to the 1999 West Nile outbreak in New York are Zimmerman and Zimmerman, Killer Germs; Shah, Pandemic: Tracking Contagions, from Cholera to Ebola and Beyond; Madeline Drexler, Secret Agents: The Menace of Emerging Infections; and various reports and media releases from the CDC. Given the recent advent of CRISPR gene-editing technology, mainstream media, magazines, and newspapers were vital in producing an up-to-date analysis of our current and ongoing war with mosquitoes and our attempts to eradicate certain mosquito species and their diseases. Academic journals and magazines, including the Economist, Science, National Geographic, Nature, and Discover, and publications and press releases from the WHO, the CDC, and the Gates Foundation, provided crucial and current information and briefings outlining the ongoing malaria vaccine ventures and the evolving use of CRISPR. Jennifer Doudna, the creator of CRISPR, and Samuel Sternberg just released a book, A Crack in Creation: The New Power to Control Evolution. James Kozubek’s Modern Prometheus: Editing the Human Genome with CRISPR-CAS9 was also recently published. With its earth-shattering and mind-bending capabilities, I anticipate a flurry of CRISPR-derived nonfiction (and apocalyptic and dystopian fiction) books flooding the market in the near future.
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Index
The page numbers in this index refer to the printed version of this book. The link provided will take you to the beginning of that print page. You may need to scroll forward from that location to find the corresponding reference on your e-reader.
NOTE: Page numbers in italics indicate photographs and captions.
Abdul Rahman al-Ghafiqi, 113–14
Acadians, 242, 247–49
Adams, John, 258, 259
Aedes mosquitoes: ability to learn, 8n; Aedes aegypti, 417; and African slavery, 168–70; and American Revolution, 271; and Columbian Exchange, 146; and European colonization of Americas, 229; feeding and mating behavior, 20, 21; and genetic sterilization efforts, 431; historic impact of, 438; and Mongol invasions, 140; and Panama Canal project, 362; and Reconstruction-era South, 338; variety of diseases transmitted by, 22, 23, 431; and wars of colonial expansion, 244; and wars of liberation in the Americas, 283–84; as yellow fever vector, 358–60; and Zika virus, 419–20
Alaric, 97, 117
Alexander III (the Great) of Macedon, 52, 59–60, 71–80, 81–82, 89, 109, 132–33, 425
Alexander IV of Macedon, 78
Alexander VI, Pope, 110
Algonquian people, 201, 240
All About Coffee (Ukers), 160
Allenby, Edmund, 124, 125
America-Britain-Canada Conference (ABC-1), 391, 392
American Civil War, 181–82, 231, 231n, 298, 302–4, 305–36, 338–39, 343
American Institute of Medicine, 398, 409
American Pests (McWilliams), 397
The American Plague (Crosby), 340
American Revolution, 160, 226–28, 255–72, 274, 276, 282, 290, 295, 338
Amherst, Jeffrey, 235–37, 243, 250, 267, 287
Anaconda Plan, 309–10, 312, 327–28, 330
Anderson, Fred, 251, 253
Anglo-Spanish War, 193, 195, 197–200
Anglo-Zulu War, 55–56
Anopheles mosquitoes: and African slavery, 168, 169; and American Civil War, 319–20; and American Revolution, 259–61, 265, 267–71; Anopheles labranchiae, 386; and author’s background, 440; and Columbian Exchange, 146; and European colonization of Americas, 195, 201, 229; feeding and mating behavior, 10–11, 21; and genetic sterilization efforts, 431; and Greco-Persian Wars, 64; and Greek culture, 71; historic impact of, 438; and malaria research, 353; and Mongol invasions, 140; and Roman Empire, 87, 94, 96, 99–100; and scope of mosquito-borne disease, 23; and Second World War, 381, 382, 383, 385; and wars of colonial expansion, 244; and wars of liberation in the Americas, 274, 283–84
Antonine Plague, 95, 96
Appomattox Court House, 331, 337
Aristophanes, 57, 65, 69–70, 79, 83
Aristotle, 57–58, 65, 71, 77, 79
Arnold, Benedict, 257, 261
artemisinin, 39–40, 402–9, 407, 411
Asnis, Deborah, 414
atabrine, 366–67, 376–77, 377, 380, 382, 402
Athens, 57, 57n, 61–63, 65, 67–69, 71
Attila the Hun, 98–99, 117
Australia, 137, 148, 156n, 157, 169n, 208, 270, 391, 404
Aztec people, 153–54, 291
Bacon’s Rebellion, 210–11
Bacteria and Bayonets (Petriello), 202
Baltimore, Maryland, 293–94
Bantu people, 32, 42–43, 45, 54–56, 426
Barbados, 170, 205, 217, 243–44
Battle of Actium, 78
Battle of Antietam, 318, 318n
Battle of Anzio, 287, 367, 373, 384–89, 387, 389, 392, 417
Battle of Bull Run (First and Second), 311–13, 318, 325, 329, 331
Battle of Cannae, 86–88
Battle of Chaeronea, 71
Battle of Ebenezer, 50
Battle of Gettysburg, 311, 324
Battle of Guadalcanal, 378, 379
Battle of Guilford Court, 266
Battle of Little Bighorn, 344
Battle of Marathon, 62–63
Battle of New Orleans, 294
Battle of Plataea, 64
Battle of Salamis, 64
Battle of San Juan Hill, 349–50
Battle of Stalingrad, 86
Battle of Teutoburg Forest, 92–93
Battle of the Bulge, 388
Battle of the Crater, 333
Battle of the Hydaspes, 73
Battle of Thermopylae, 63–64
Battle of Tours, 114
Battle of Trafalgar, 262–63, 286
Battle of Trasimene, 85–86
Battle of Waterloo, 286
Battle of Yorktown, 268–70
Battle of Zama, 88
Beauregard, P. G. T., 311–12
Beaver Wars, 200–201, 240
Belgian Congo, 173–74
Belisarius, 102
Bell, Andrew McIlwaine, 182, 307, 310, 318
Bellamy, Samuel “Black Sam,” 193
Bellen, Hugo, 433
Beothuk people, 153, 195–96
Bermuda, 204–5, 206, 337
Bidwell, Edwin, 315
Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, 1, 372, 413, 420–22, 424, 428, 430
biological warfare, 92, 287, 289, 337–41, 367–68, 391–92, 415–17, 433. See also Battle of Anzio
Black Death, 77, 102, 137–38, 157, 160, 214
Blackburn, Luke, 337–40, 417
Blakeney, William, 242
Blitzableiter biological weapons program, 392
Bolivar, Simon, 235, 271–72, 288–89
The Book of Prophecies (Columbus), 164
Book of the Marvels of the World (Polo), 140
Boorstin, Daniel, 149
B
oston Tea Party, 256–57, 258
botulism, 12, 391, 417
Bouquet, Henry, 236
Boyce, Rubert, 437
Bradford, William, 227, 227n
Bragg, Braxton, 301, 317
Bray, R. S., 67, 136
Brazil, 178, 419
Brennus, 87, 99
A Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indies (Casas), 142
Britain: and American Civil War, 309, 311, 313, 323; and American imperialism, 346; and American Revolution, 255–71; Anglo-Zulu War, 55–56; and biological weapons research, 391, 392; British Royal Navy, 181, 253–54, 260; embargo of American ports, 292–93; imperialism, 56, 163–64, 189–90, 212; and wars of colonial expansion, 236–54; and wars of liberation in the Americas, 276–77, 281–82, 284–90. See also England
bubonic plague, 13, 101, 137, 391, 417
Buchanan, James, 346
Buddhism, 39, 75, 136, 139
Burgoyne, John, 261
Burnside, Ambrose, 301
Byron, Lord, 50, 111
Byzantine Empire, 101–2
Caesar, Julius, 78, 91–92
California, 299–300, 301
Caligula, 78, 109
Campagna of Rome, 81, 87, 92, 94, 97, 100, 110–12, 111, 117
Campeche, Mexico, 143–44, 170
Canada: and American Revolution, 270; Canadian Arctic, 14; Charter of Rights and Freedoms, 127; and Columbian Exchange, 149; and War of 1812, 292–93, 294; and wars of colonial expansion, 238, 240–43, 247–50; and wars of liberation in the Americas, 235; and zones of infection in the Americas, 232–33