by George Sand
2 Metastasio and Hasse: Pietro Metastasio (1698–1792), Italian poet whose opera librettos were set to music by many composers. Johann Adolph Hasse (1699–1783), German composer known chiefly for his many operas written in the Italian style.
2 Zingarella: Italian word meaning “little Gypsy girl.”
5 Mlle Cochois: A French actress who had secretly become the Marquis d’Argens’s wife.
6 such a great scholar: Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertius (1699–1783), French naturalist and president of the Berlin Academy.
Chapter II
8 Dr. von Hoffmann: A German doctor famous for his drops made of ether and alcohol.
9 General Quintus Icilius: This eminent specialist of Latin was born with the name Charles Théophile Guichard. When Frederick proposed that he become the commander of a regiment because he knew the work of Julius Caesar so well, Guichard took the name of the famous Roman general Quintus Icilius.
10 Dionysius of Syracuse: Tyrant of Syracuse (368–344 B.C.). His uncle Dion of Syracuse, along with Plato, had unsuccessfully tried to make him into a model philosopher-king.
10 Marcus Aurelius: Roman emperor and Stoic philosopher (121–180) often considered a model of the philosopher-emperor.
15 Panurge: Panurge, as well as Pantagruel and Gargantua, who are soon to be mentioned, are all larger-than-life characters created by Rabelais, the Renaissance humorist and satirist (1483–1553).
17 “C’est toi qui l’as nommée!”: from Racine’s Phèdre.
Chapter III
18 Trajan’s: The Roman emperor (53–117) also known as Germanicus.
22 Cytherea: Another name for Venus or Aphrodite, the goddess of love.
23 Richelieu: The Duke de Richelieu (1696–1788), a libertine aristocrat and one of Voltaire’s patrons; Lauzun: the Duke de Lauzun (1633–1723), notorious for his love affair with Mlle de Montpensier at the court of Louis XIV.
Chapter IV
32 fortress of Glatz: In 1743 Princess Anna Amalia of Prussia (1723–87) secretly married Baron Friedrich von der Trenck. When her brother Frederick II discovered this, he had the marriage annulled, sent her off to the Abbey of Quedlinburg, and imprisoned Trenck for ten years at the Silesian prison of Glatz. The princess corresponded with Trenck until her death.
Chapter V
39 fable suits you: The fable about the Lion and the Gnat was told by Aesop and retold by Jean de La Fontaine (1621–95).
Chapter VI
41 Trenck the Pandur will perish in Spielberg: Franz Freiherr von der Trenck (1711–49), an Austrian soldier, died in the fortress of Spielberg after having been brought before a court-martial for multiple infractions while serving Maria Theresa.
43 Ian Zizka of the Chalice: Jan Zizka (1374?–1424), Bohemian military leader and head of the Hussite forces during the crusades that the Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund (1368–1437) led against them.
44 Trismegistus: This name recalls that of Hermes Trismegistus, the legendary author of treatises on magic and alchemy.
Chapter VII
50 Zingarella: The term “zingaro” means Gypsy. “Zingara” is the feminine form, and “zingarella” a feminine diminutive.
50 scuola dei mendicanti: Literally, the beggars’ school.
51 Hus: Jan Hus (1369?–1415), Czech religious reformer influenced by John Wyclif and generally considered a forerunner of the Protestant Reformation; finally tried for heresy, he was burned at the stake.
53 Taborite: The Taborites were a splinter group of Hussites who took their name from Tabor, their religious and military stronghold and once a center of retreat for Jan Hus. This group found many adherents among the peasants and expressed messianic hopes of abolishing the feudal system and establishing a classless society. Their influence in Bohemia nearly vanished after their military defeat in 1534.
53 King George Podiebrad: Hussite king of Bohemia (1420–71), who ruled from 1458 until his death.
54 Waldensians: Protestant religious group that originated in Lyons, France, in the late twelfth century and spread into the Alpine regions of France and Italy as well as parts of Switzerland. They preached apostolic poverty and simplicity; Anabaptists of Munster: Anabaptists, who were prominent in Europe in the sixteenth century, rejected infant baptism, thereby incurring the condemnation of Catholics and Protestants alike. In 1534, a group of Anabaptists took up arms in Munster, Germany and set up a short-lived theocracy during which polygamy was legalized and property communized; Picards: Another group of heretics that appeared in Bohemia in the early fifteenth century.
57 Prison of Lead: A famous Venetian prison located in the attic of the Doges’ Palace. As the roof was covered in sheets of lead, the cells were often extremely hot or extremely cold.
Chapter VIII
61 Haydn . . . fifteen: Franz Joseph Haydn (1732–1809), a prolific Austrian composer.
64 Virtuosi ridicoli: Perhaps the 1749 light Italian opera by Matteo Buini, La Virtuosa corteggiata da trei cisisbei ridicoli, according to the suggestion made in the Cellier & Guichard edition.
Chapter IX
70 Herr Graun: Karl Heinrich Graun (1701–59), singer, composer and conductor of the royal orchestra at the court of Frederick II; Benda: Franz Benda (1709–1786), composer and violinist; Herr Ouantz: Johann Joachim Quantz (1697–1773), flutist, flutemaker, and composer known for his treatise on flute technique.
70 basilisk: A legendary monster, part bird and part reptile, that reputedly killed by means of its breath and glance.
Chapter X
79 Georg Benda (1722–95), clavier player, oboist, and pioneer of the musical melodrama, such as his Ariadne auf Naxos.
84 Mlle Clairon: A French actress (1732–1802) renowned for her performance in plays by Voltaire.
Chapter XI
93 Polyhymnia: the ancient Greek muse of sacred song.
93 Ariadne Abandoned: Perhaps Georg Benda’s Ariadne auf Naxos. Several eighteenth-century operas bear this title.
Chapter XII
99 redoute: In German this word of French origin generally means “ballroom.”
103 Sigismund: As king of Germany (1410–37), Sigismund (1368–1437) betrayed Jan Hus and was largely responsible for his death at the stake at the conclusion of the Council of Constance (1417). The burning of Hus encouraged the Reformation in Bohemia and earned Sigismund the enmity of the Czechs. As king of Bohemia (1419–37), he called for a crusade against the Hussites who, under the command of Jan Zizka and others, won several victories against him.
Chapter XIII
111 reign of a petticoat: Frederick feared what he called “French ladies” and referred to Mme de Pompadour (1721–64), the mistress of Louis XV of France, as “Her Majesty Petticoat III.”
113 ab irato: “Out of anger.” Original in Latin.
114 your father’s inquisition: At the age of eighteen, Frederick was publicly beaten by his father. Afterward he and his friend Hans Hermann von Katte tried to escape from Prussia but were caught. Because both were officers in the Prussian army, they were charged with treason and threatened with the death penalty. Although the king decided to spare his son’s life, Frederick was forced to watch the decapitation of his friend von Katte in 1730.
Chapter XIV
120 Schwartz: “Schwartz” in German means “black.”
Chapter XV
125 reserved sins: Grave sins, the absolution of which requires the intervention of a pope, bishop, or delegated priest.
125 groschen: “Pennies.” In German in the original.
125 Egeria of his greedy inspirations: According to Roman myth, Egeria was a fountain nymph who acted as an advisor to Numa, the second king of Rome. In more general usage, it refers to a woman who is a secret and well-respected counselor.
125 claims on their behalf: Prussian law forbade lending any sum of money to actors and declared null and void the debts that they might contract.
127 with him in its middle: Throughout her novels and personal correspondence Sand often refers
to herself in the masculine
Chapter XVI
130 planetary: Meaning here “astrologer,” according to one of the definitions of “planetarius” in Low Latin. While this is a rare meaning of the French term “planétaire,” it is recorded in the 1752 edition of the Latin-French Dictionnaire de Trévoux.
130 Philip the Fair: Philip IV of France (1268–1314), who prosecuted the Knights Templar.
131 Cardinal Fleury: Cardinal André Hercule de Fleury (1653–1743) became Louis XV’s chief minister in 1726. Although he strove for peace abroad, he was drawn into wars involving the Polish and Austrian successions.
131 Charles Edward back on the throne: After his defeat at Culloden in 1745, Charles Edward Stuart, called the Young Pretender, had been forced to renounce the English throne.
132 Monsieur Jourdain’s Nicole: An allusion to Molière’s Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme, Act III, scene 2, where Monsieur Jourdain is threatening his servant Nicole.
132 hanging only by a thread: These are allusions to the complex situation leading up to the Seven Years’ War (1756–63).
Chapter XVII
139 Phèdre or Chimène: The female leads in Racine’s tragedy by the same name and Corneille’s tragicomedy Le Cid.
139 Electra or Semiramis: Mlle Clairon interpreted these roles in Voltaire’s Oreste and Sémiramis.
Chapter XVIII
141 Gottlieb: In German, “love of God.”
142 Saint Crispin’s trade: Saint Crispin was, according to legend, a third-century Christian. Born to a noble family in Rome, he fled to Soissons during Diocletian’s persecution of the Christians. There he set himself up as a shoemaker. For his services he would only take money that was freely offered him. After his martyrdom he became known as the patron saint of shoemakers, cobblers, and other leatherworkers.
143 all their peers: See La Fontaine’s fable, “The Eagle and the Owl.”
144 Cerberus: In Greek mythology, a three-headed dog who guards the entrance to Hades.
144 old Fate: The Fates, usually three in number, are the elderly divinities who determine the course of human life in Greek mythology.
145 gold Frederick: A gold coin bearing the likeness of Frederick II of Prussia.
Chapter XIX
151 My Lindor: Lindor is a character type in Spanish literature, a lovesick, serenading suitor.
151 hidalgo: In Spanish in the original, but the French usage of the term designates someone of no social importance, far less than a member of the lower nobility of Spain, which is the signification of the term in English.
152 the laces of his shoes: Words attributed to John the Baptist; see Matthew 3: 11, Mark 1: 6, and Luke 3:16. Note that the French possessive adjective here can be translated as his or hers, whereas English allows no such ambiguity.
155 Apollonius of Tyana: A Neo-Pythagorean philosopher of the first century A.D. who supposedly understood the language of birds.
155 another species: George Sand, granddaughter of a birdseller, was herself capable of taming birds.
157 Corte Minelli: A location in central Venice.
157 il firmamento lucido: In Italian in the original.
169 Jacob Boehme: German religious mystic (1575–1624), author of De signatura rerum and Mysterium magnum.
172 millennium: Period lasting a thousand years during which Christ will reign over the earth, according to the millenarians; see Revelation 20.
176 Herrnhuters: An evangelical Christian group that originated in Bohemia with the disciples of Jan Hus. In 1722, Count von Zinzendorf welcomed them to his Saxon estate, and their colony became known as Herrnhut (the Sheepfold of the Lord).
176 Paracelsus: Swiss physician and alchemist (1493?–1541).
176 Swedenborg: Emanuel Swedenborg, Swedish scientist and religious mystic (1688–1772), whose religious system is sometimes known as Swedenborgianism. After his death his disciples organized the Church of the New Jerusalem.
176 Schröpfer the lemonadeseller: Café owner in Liepzig who in 1768 founded a Masonic lodge known for communicating with souls of the dead.
176 free-judges: In fourteenth and fifteenth century Germany the Free-Judges constituted a secret tribunal that worked to put down abuses on the part of aristocrats.
178 Simon Magus: A powerful sorcerer practicing in Samaria at the time of the disciples; see Acts 8:9–24.
Chapter XXI
192 the Lord is with me: These seem to be adaptations of Psalms 91:11–12 and 23: 4.
Chapter XXIII
211 Deïanira: Deïanira, the wife of Heracles, gave her unfaithful husband a poisoned robe that consumed him in horrible suffering.
Chapter XXIV
217 reserved sins: Grave sins that can be absolved only by a pope, a bishop or a specially delegated priest.
Chapter XXVI
229 La libertà: “Let me weep over my cruel fate and yearn for liberty.” From Act II, scene 4 of the 1711 opera.
Chapter XXVII
240 Free-Judges: In fourteenth- and fifteenth-century Germany the Free-Judges constituted a secret tribunal that worked to put down abuses on the part of aristocrats.
Chapter XXVIII
246 Thirty Years’ War: The Thirty Years’ War (1618–48) was in good part a struggle between Protestant princes of Germany against the Holy Roman Empire allied with the Catholic princes of Germany.
246 John Wyclif: English theologian (1330–84) condemned as a heretic and considered a forerunner of the Protestant Reformation. Wyclif attacked the doctrine of transubstantiation, championed the cause of the people against the clergy, argued that the church should give up its property, and initiated the first translation of the Bible into English. Jan Hus: Bohemian religious reformer (1372?–1415) influenced by Wyclif. After being excommunicated and tried for heresy, Hus was burned at the stake.
Chapter XXX
270 Psyche: In the Metamorphoses of Apuleius, Psyche is loved by Cupid, who visits her only at night, unseen and unrecognized. Curious to know her lover, she lights a lamp and inadvertently spills a drop of hot oil on his face. Cupid awakes and disappears. She is reunited with her lover only after having completed several purifying ordeals.
Chapter XXXI
272 Memphis: City of ancient Egypt and capital of the Old Kingdom, during which the pyramids were built; Eleusis: City of ancient Greece that was the seat of the mystery cult of Demeter and Persephone.
272 Christian revelation: Here Sand is alluding to the Johannites. In Jean Ziska: Épisode de la guerre des hussites (1843) she affirms that “the interpretation and application of the fraternal and egalitarian Gospel of Saint John” is the ferment of many heresies and sects, such as the Hussites, Taborites, and Lollards, that she considers to be one (46).
274 the soul and the human person: In Jean Ziska, Sand notes that the Taborites came to believe that the transmission of life meant the return of the dead to this earth in new bodies; they believed, for example, that Zizka was Hus come back to life.
274 Moravian Herrnhuters: an evangelical Christian group that originated in Bohemia with the disciples of Jan Hus, who broke with Rome in 1467. In 1722 Count von Zinzendorf welcomed them to his Saxon estate at Herrnhut. Xerophagists: After a papal bull of 1738 forbade the practice of Freemasonry, many Italian Freemasons continued to meet under the name of Xerophagists. Joachimites: Followers of the Cistercian abbot and mystic Joachim of Flora (circa 1132–1202).
278 by virtue of adoption: Lodges for women, known as lodges of adoption, were created in the eighteenth century, disappeared early in the nineteenth century, and were reconstituted some twenty years after the death of George Sand.
279 Order of the Mops: A secret society that existed briefly in mid-eighteenth-century Germany. Open to both men and women, it had a reputation for a certain gallant lasciviousness.
279 signals of distress: A triangle formed by the shoulders with uplifted arms and clasped hands, accompanied by the words: “To me, the Children of the Widow.”
280 Levites for
the sanctuary: To be taken figuratively here. In its literal sense, the term designates a priestly Hebrew tribe whose members were assigned to lesser ceremonial offices in the temple.
281 Fénelon’s Telemachus: François de Salignac de la Mothe-Fénelon, French priest and writer (1651–1715). His novel Telemachus (1699), written for the young crown prince he was tutoring, was inspired with the principles of tolerance and moderation.
281 Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Helvetius: Montesquieu (1689–1755), French writer, lawyer, and political philosopher who criticized despotism and absolute monarchy; Voltaire (1694–1778), French writer and philosopher of the Enlightenment; Helvetius (1715–1771), French philosopher, proponent of sensationalism and utilitarianism.
Chapter XXXII
286 as the ancient Lollards used to say: Disciples of John Wyclif in fourteenth- and fifteenth-century England and Scotland who exercised a significant influence on the Hussites in Bohemia; also, followers of the Franciscan Walter Lolhard, who converted to the Waldensian faith and was burned at Cologne in 1322.