by Ari Kelman
77. Quote from Alexa Roberts, interview by author, January 8, 2007, telephone, tape recording, in author’s possession.
78. “As a country …” and “the history …” from “Office of the Secretary, for Immediate Release, April 23, 2007, Secretary Kempthorne Creates Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site,” in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC. “Now Sand Creek …” from Alexa Roberts, interview by author, April 30, 2007, telephone, tape recording, in author’s possession. See also Alexa Roberts interview, January 8, 2007.
79. Alexa Roberts interview, April 30, 2007.
EPILOGUE
1. Quotes from “Bent’s Old Fort,” National Park Service, http://www.nps.gov/beol/index.htm. See also Douglas C. Comer, Ritual Ground: Bent’s Old Fort, World Formation, and the Annexation of the Southwest (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 3–29; Harold H. Dunham, “Ceran St. Vrain,” in LeRoy R. Hafen, ed., Mountain Men and Fur Traders of the Far West: Eighteen Biographical Sketches (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982), 146–165; Lincoln B. Faller and George Bent, “Making Medicine against ‘White Man’s Side of Story’: George Bent’s Letters to George Hyde,” American Indian Quarterly 24 (Winter 2000): 64–90.
2. “Consultation Concerns Sand Creek Repatriation,” Watonga Republican, May 21, 2003, A-10; Deborah Frazier, “The Echoes of Sand Creek,” Rocky Mountain News, December 3, 1995, A-32; Jim Hughes, “Burials at Sand Creek,” Denver Post, August 7, 2005, C-1; Otto Braided Hair, director, Northern Cheyenne Sand Creek Office, to Ari Kelman, e-mail, August 7, 2008, in uncataloged files of the Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site (FSCMNHS), currently held by National Park Service, Western Archeological and Conservation Center (NPS-WACC), Tucson, AZ; “Introduction to NAGPRA for the Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site,” attached to “Meeting Notes, March 18–21, 2002, Denver, Colorado,” in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; Public Law 101-601; “National NAGPRA,” National Park Service, http://www.nps.gov/nagpra/; “Meeting Notes, December 13–14, 2002, Denver, Colorado,” in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; Laird Cometsevah, chief, Southern Cheyenne Tribe, interview by author, May 12, 2003, Denver, CO, tape recording, in author’s possession; Steve Brady, president, Northern Cheyenne Sand Creek Descendants, interview by author, August 29, 2004, Lame Deer, MT, tape recording, in author’s possession; Joe Big Medicine, Sand Creek representative, Southern Cheyenne Tribe, interview by author, July 8, 2003, Lame Deer, MT, tape recording, in author’s possession.
3. Quotes from David Hurst Thomas, Skull Wars: Kennewick Man, Archaeology, and the Battle for Native American Identity (New York: Basic Books, 2000), 214–215. See also Devon A. Mihesuah, “Introduction,” in Devon A. Mihesuah, ed., Repatriation Reader: Who Owns Native American Remains? (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000), 1–6; Jack F. Trope and Walter Echo-Hawk, “The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act: Background and Legislative History,” in Mihesuah, Repatriation Reader, 123–145; Charles Wilkinson, Blood Struggle: The Rise of Modern Indian Nations (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005), 263–274; Julia A. Cryne, “NAGPRA Revisited: A Twenty-Year Review of Repatriation Efforts,” American Indian Law Review 34 (2009–2010): 99–122; Susan B. Bruning, “Complex Legal Legacies: The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act, Scientific Study, and Kennewick Man,” American Antiquity 71 (July 2006): 501–521; Michelle Hibbert, “Galileos or Grave Robbers? Science, the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act, and the First Amendment,” American Indian Law Review 23 (1998–1999): 425–458; June Camille Bush Raines, “One Is Missing: Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act: An Overview and Analysis,” American Indian Law Review 17 (1992): 639–664; James Riding In, Cal Seciwa, Suzan Shown Harjo, and Walter Echo-Hawk, “Protecting Native American Human Remains, Burial Grounds, and Sacred Places: Panel Discussion,” Wicazo Sa Review 19 (Autumn 2004): 169–183; Pamela D’Innocenzo, “ ‘Not in My Backyard!’ Protecting Archaeological Sites on Private Lands,” American Indian Law Review 21 (1997): 131–155; Joe E. Watkins, “Beyond the Margin: American Indians, First Nations, and Archaeology in North America,” American Antiquity 68 (April 2003): 273–285.
4. “They’ve had centuries …” from Steve Brady interview, August 29, 2004. “One more hoop …” from “Meeting Notes, March 18–20, 2002, Denver, Colorado,” in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC. See also “Meeting Notes, December 12–14, 2002, Denver, Colorado,” in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; “Meeting Notes, March 6–8, 2003, Clinton, Oklahoma,” in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; “Meeting Notes, July 9, 2003, Lame Deer, Montana,” in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; “Meeting Notes, November 26, 2003, Eads, Colorado,” in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; “Meeting Notes, March 17–18, 2004, Denver, Colorado,” in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; Andrew Gulliford, “Bones of Contention: The Repatriation of Native American Human Remains,” Public Historian 18 (Autumn 1996): 119–143; T. J. Ferguson, “Native Americans and the Practice of Archaeology,” Annual Review of Anthropology 25 (1996): 63–79; Jerome C. Rose, Thomas J. Green, and Victoria D. Green, “NAGPRA Is Forever: Osteology and the Repatriation of Skeletons,” Annual Review of Anthropology 25 (1996): 81–103; Renee M. Kosslak, “The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act: The Death Knell for Scientific Study?,” American Indian Law Review 24 (1999–2000): 129–151; Alexa Roberts, “Trust Me, I Work for the Government: Confidentiality and Public Access to Sensitive Information,” American Indian Quarterly 25 (Winter 2001): 13–17; Clayton W. Dumont Jr., “The Politics of Scientific Objections to Repatriation,” Wicazo Sa Review 18 (Spring 2003): 109–128; Moira G. Simpson, “A Grave Dilemma: Native Americans and Museums in the USA,” Journal of Museum Ethnography 6 (October 1994): 25–37.
5. Except where otherwise noted, details of the ceremony have been drawn from photographs of the event, taken by an independent scholar named Tom Meier, found in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC. See also “Reburial Notes, June 8, 2008, Eads, Colorado,” in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; Alexa Roberts, superintendent, Bent’s Old Fort National Historic Site, interview by author, July 21, 2008, telephone, notes in author’s possession; Otto Braided Hair, director, Northern Cheyenne Sand Creek Office, to Ari Kelman, e-mail, June 24, 2008, in author’s possession; Karl Zimmerman, chief of operations, Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site, to Ari Kelman, e-mail, September 19, 2011, in author’s possession.
6. “Halfbreed” from Denver Times, November 5, 1905. “E 1748, Scalp (Cheyenne or Arapaho), Taken from an Indian by a soldier at Sand Creek Massacre, by Jacob Downing Nov. 29, 1864,” from “Report on Museum Related Materials for the Sand Creek Massacre Site,” in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC. See also Grand Army of the Republic, The National Memorial Day: A Record of Ceremonies over the Graves of the Union Soldiers, May 29 and 30, 1869 (Washington, DC: Headquarters of the Grand Army of the Republic, 1870), 61; George Bent, “Forty Years with the Cheyennes,” ed. George Hyde, Frontier: A Magazine of the West 4 (October 1905): 6; George Bent, “Forty Years with the Cheyennes,” ed. George Hyde, Frontier: A Magazine of the West 4 (December 1905): 2; George Bent, “Forty Years with the Cheyennes,” ed. George Hyde, Frontier: A Magazine of the West 4 (January 1906): 4; George Bent, “Forty Years with the Cheyennes,” ed. George Hyde, Frontier: A Magazine of the West 4 (February 1906): 6; George Bent, “Forty Years with the Cheyennes,” ed. George Hyde, Frontier: A Magazine of the West 4 (March 1906): 7; David Fridtjof Halaas and Andrew E. Masich, Halfbreed: The Remarkable True Story of George Bent, Caught between the Worlds of the Indian and the White Man (New York: Da Capo Press, 2004), 337–339.
7. “Reburial Notes, June 8, 2008, Eads, Colorado,” in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; Bent, “Forty Years with the Cheyennes,” (October 1905): 6–7; George E. Hyde, Life of George Bent: Written from His Letters, ed. Savoie Lottinville, (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1968), 149–155.
8. “Massacre of Cheyenne Indians,” in Report of the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, at the Second Session, Thirty-Eighth Congress (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1865), 107–10
8; Henry Littleton Pitzer, Three Frontiers: Memories and a Portrait of Henry Littleton Pitzer as Recorded by His Son Robert Claiborne Pitzer (Muscatine, IA: Prairie Press, 1938), 162–163; Elmer R. Burkey, “The Site of the Murder of the Hungate Family by Indians in 1864,” Colorado Magazine 12 (1935): 135–142; J. S. Brown and Thomas J. Darrah to Governor John Evans, June 11, 1864, The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1900), Series I, XXXIV, Pt. 4, 319–320; Alice Polk Hill, Tales of Colorado Pioneers (Denver: Pierson and Gardner, 1884), 79–80; Nathaniel P. Hill, “Nathaniel P. Hill Inspects Colorado, Letters Written in 1864,” Colorado Magazine 33–34 (1956–1957): 245–246; Lenore Barbian, anatomical collections manager, National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution, to Gary L. Roberts, National Park Service contract historian, in Gary L. Roberts, “The Sand Creek Massacre Site: A Report on Washington Sources,” January 1999 (unpublished manuscript), in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; United States Army Medical Museum Anatomical Section, “Records Relating to Specimens Transferred to the Smithsonian Institution,” National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution, 1990, 7, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; Scott Brown, museum technician, National Museum of Natural History and National Museum of Health and Medicine, to Tom Killion, case officer, repatriation office, October 21, 1991, in Roberts, “The Sand Creek Massacre Site”; War Department, Surgeon General’s Office, A Report of Surgical Cases Treated in the Army of the United States from 1865–1871 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1871), 15–16; Thomas, Skull Wars, 37–56, 100–107.
9. Associated Press, “U.S. to Return Human Remains to Tribes,” Rocky Mountain News, October 12, 1992, 16; “Meeting Notes, March 18–21, 2002, Denver, Colorado,” in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; “Meeting Notes, March 17, 2004, Denver, Colorado,” in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; Wilkinson, Blood Struggle, 207.
10. Alexa Roberts interview, July 21, 2008; Braided Hair to Kelman, e-mail, June 24, 2008; Alexa Roberts to Ari Kelman, e-mail, September 20, 2011, in author’s possession.
11. Quotes from “About the Center,” Center of the American West, http://centerwest.org/about/ and http://centerwest.org/about/patty/. See also Alexa Roberts interview, July 21, 2008; Braided Hair to Kelman, e-mail, June 24, 2008; Roberts to Kelman, e-mail, September 20, 2011.
12. Quote from Braided Hair to Kelman, e-mail, June 24, 2008. See also Percy Ednalino, “Sand Creek Letters Go to Senate,” Denver Post, September 16, 2000, B-4; Dick Kreck, “Historians Skirmishing over Sand Creek Letters,” Denver Post, September 20, 2000, A-2; “Dark Side of Sand Creek,” Denver Post, September 16, 2000, B-7; Bob Scott, “There’s More to Sand Creek Letters Than Meets Eye,” Rocky Mountain News, September 22, 2000, A-54; Alexa Roberts interview, July 21, 2008; “MacArthur Fellows Program,” MacArthur Foundation, http://www.macfound.org/site/c.lkLXJ8MQKrH/b.959463/k.9D7D/Fellows_Program.htm.
13. Quotes from Alexa Roberts interview, July 21, 2008.
14. Ibid. See also Braided Hair to Kelman, e-mail, June 24, 2008; Sanford Levinson, Written in Stone: Public Monuments in Changing Societies (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1998), 10; Jenny Edkins, Trauma and the Memory of Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 10–19.
15. “Protecting their …” from Braided Hair to Kelman, e-mail, June 24, 2008. See also Alexa Roberts interview, July 21, 2008.
16. “Sacred playbook” from Steve Brady, interview by author, September 12, 2003, telephone, tape recording, in author’s possession. All other quotes from Alexa Roberts, interview by author, September 15, 2011, telephone, tape recording, in author’s possession.
17. “It was just …” and “lay some …” from Alexa Roberts, interview by author, September 2, 2011, telephone, tape recording, in author’s possession. All other quotes from Jeff Campbell, volunteer interpreter, Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site, interview by author, September 13, 2011, telephone, notes in author’s possession.
18. Quotes from Jeff Campbell interview, September 13, 2011.
19. Ibid. See also Jeff C. Campbell, “Sand Creek Massacre, Background Booklet #1, 1st Regiment Cavalry, Colorado Volunteers, [United States Army Volunteers], Formerly Known as: 1st Regiment Infantry, Colorado Volunteers, 1861–1865, Alphabetical Roll of Regiment and Alphabetical Roll of Regiment by Company,” May 2006, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; Jeff C. Campbell, “Sand Creek Massacre Background Booklet #2, 3rd Regiment Cavalry, Colorado Volunteers, [United States Army Volunteers], a One Hundred Days Regiment], August to December 1865, Alphabetical Roll of Regiment and Alphabetical Roll of Regiment by Company,” May 2006, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; Jeff C. Campbell, “Sand Creek Massacre, Background Booklet #3, the John Milton Chivington Record, June 02, 1813–October 04, 1894,” May 2006, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; Roberts to Kelman, e-mail, September 20, 2011.
20. Quotes from Jeff Campbell interview, September 13, 2011. See also Testimony of Private Alexander F. Safely in “Report of the Secretary of War,” 39th Cong., 2nd Sess., S. Ex. Doc. 26, 221–221; Andrew Jackson Templeton papers, Starsmore Research Center, Pioneer Museum of Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, CO; Irving Howbert, Memories of a Lifetime in the Pike’s Peak Region (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1925), 11–142; George Bent to George Hyde, April 30, 1906, Coe Collection, Beinecke Library, Yale University, New Haven, CT; George Bent to George Hyde, October 15, 1914, Letter 10, George Bent Manuscript Collection 54, Colorado Historical Society, Denver, CO; George Bent to George Hyde, March 15, 1905, Coe Collection.
21. Quote from Jeff Campbell interview, September 13, 2011. See also “Big Sandy Rises,” Brandon Bell, August 2, 1912; “Headgates Near Completion,” Colorado Farm and Ranch, October 18, 1912; “Brandon Paragraphs,” Brandon Bell, December 20, 1912; “Brandon Paragraphs,” Brandon Bell, June 13, 1913; “Brandon Paragraphs,” Brandon Bell, February 7, 1913; “The Irrigation Reservoir,” Brandon Bell, February 28, 1913; “Chivington Canal Election,” Brandon Bell, December 5, 1913; “Brandon,” Brandon Bell, December 12, 1913; “Some Contracts Let,” Colorado Farm and Ranch, January 17, 1913; “Work Begins on Canal Outlet,” Brandon Bell, February 13, 1914; “Big Reservoirs Filling,” Colorado Farm and Ranch, May 8, 1914; “Brandon,” Brandon Bell, May 8, 1914; “Brandon,” Colorado Farm and Ranch, August 18, 1916; “Chivington Canal Near Brandon to Be Repaired,” Kiowa County Press, February 16, 1917; “Eads Locals,” Kiowa County Press, August 6, 1920; “Locals,” Kiowa County Press, May 8, 1925.
22. Quote from Jeff Campbell interview, September 13, 2011.
23. Quotes from Alexa Roberts, interview by author, May 20, 2011, telephone, notes in author’s possession. See also Jeff Campbell interview, September 13, 2011.
24. Quotes from Alexa Roberts interview, May 20, 2011. See also Amy M. Holmes and Michael McFaul, “Geoarcheological Assessment of the Sand Creek Massacre Site, Kiowa County, Colorado,” October 18, 1999, 3–11, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; National Park Service, Intermountain Region, Sand Creek Massacre Project, vol. 1: Site Location Study (Denver: National Park Service, Intermountain Region, 2000), 1, 4, 9–10, 15–16, 26, 31–32, 35–36, 76–78, 188; National Park Service, Intermountain Region, Sand Creek Massacre Project, vol. 2: Special Resource Study (Denver: National Park Service, Intermountain Region, 2000), 14, 17–19, 46; Laird Cometsevah, interview, May 12, 2003; Jeff Campbell interview, September 13, 2011.
25. “All I’ve been doing …” and “I’d never say I’m 100 percent …” from Jeff Campbell interview, September 13, 2011. All other quotes from Alexa Roberts interview, May 20, 2011.
26. Quotes from Jeff Campbell interview, September 13, 2011.
27. Kenneth E. Foote, Shadowed Ground: America’s Landscapes of Violence and Tragedy (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1997), 5–8, 33–35; Hyde, Life of George Bent, 149–155; Jeff Campbell interview, September 13, 2011.
28. John Bodnar, The Good War in American Memory (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010), 2–4, 11; D
rew Gilpin Faust, This Republic of Suffering: Death and the American Civil War (New York: Vintage, 2009), 4–11, 66–97; Stephanie McCurry, Confederate Reckoning: Power and Politics in the Civil War South (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), 2–9, 219–360; Edward T. Linenthal, Preserving Memory: The Struggle to Create America’s Holocaust Museum (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), xv, 61–64.
29. David Blight, American Oracle: The Civil War in the Civil Rights Era (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2011), 6, 22; Michael A. Elliot, Custerology: The Enduring Legacy of the Indian Wars and George Armstrong Custer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 7, 47–49; Michael Kammen, Mystic Chords of Memory: Transformations of Tradition in American Culture (New York: Vintage, 1993), 191; Richard Slotkin, Gunfighter Nation: The Myth of the Frontier in the Twentieth Century (New York: Harper, 1992), 6; Eric Rauchway, Blessed among Nations: How the World Made America (New York: Hill and Wang, 2007), 9–14.
30. Quote from Abraham Lincoln, “Address Delivered at the Dedication of the Cemetery at Gettysburg,” in David A. Hollinger and Charles Capper, eds., The American Intellectual Tradition: 1630–1865 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 429. See also Gary Wills, Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words That Remade America (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006), 63–89; Gabor S. Boritt, The Gettysburg Gospel: The Lincoln Speech That Nobody Knows (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006), 31–47, 96–121, 144–160; “Gettysburg Address (1863),” OurDocuments.gov, http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=36; Avishai Margalit, The Ethics of Memory (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), 77–85; Karl Jacoby, Shadows at Dawn: A Borderlands Massacre and the Violence of History (New York: Penguin, 2008), 1–7.
INDEX
Note: Page numbers in italics indicate maps and illustrations.